Skip directly to search Skip directly to A to Z list Skip directly to navigation Skip directly to page options Skip directly to site content

Research References

CDC uses findings from nonpharmaceutical intervention (NPI) research to ensure that our guidance and recommendations are based on scientific evidence. CDC conducts and supports research to understand the feasibility, effectiveness, and secondary effects of implementing NPIs during a flu pandemic.

The following references represent a select subset of scientific articles by CDC and other researchers that contribute to the NPI body of literature. These references describe the use of NPIs as a public health strategy during a flu pandemic, and provide evidence-based information about the effectiveness of NPIs in slowing the spread of seasonal or pandemic flu. The research also presents NPI implementation issues (i), including secondary effects, that may require advance planning and preparation.

The references are listed by topic area, in alphabetical order by first author’s last name.

Personal NPIs for Everyday Use (voluntary home isolation, respiratory etiquette, hand hygiene)

Aiello AE, Coulborn RM, Perez V, Larson EL. Effect of hand hygiene on infectious disease risk in the community setting: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:1372-81.

Basurto-Davila R. Community mitigation strategies: a review of the evidence. Presented at: Decision Making for Using Community Mitigation Measures; 2011 January, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. (i)

Bischoff WE, Swett K, Leng I, Peters TR. Exposure to influenza virus aerosols during routine patient care. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:1037-46. (i)

Brankston G, Gitterman L, Hirji Z, Lemieux C, Gardam M. Transmission of influenza A in human beings. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007;7:257-65. (i)

Chan EY, Cheng CK, Tam G, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Hong Kong population towards human A/H7N9 influenza pandemic preparedness, China, 2014. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:943. (i)

Cowling BJ, Ip DK, Fang VJ, et al. Modes of transmission of influenza B virus in households. PLoS One. 2014;9(9):e108850. (i)

Ferguson NM, Cummings DA, Fraser C, Cajka JC, Cooley PC, Burke DS. Strategies for mitigating an influenza pandemic. Nature. 2006;442:448-52.

Godoy P, Castilla J, Delgado-Rodríguez M, et al. Effectiveness of hand hygiene and provision of information in preventing influenza cases requiring hospitalization. Prev Med. 2012;54:434-9.

Grayson ML, Melvani S, Druce J, et al. Efficacy of soap and water and alcohol-based hand-rub preparations against live H1N1 influenza virus on the hands of human volunteers. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:285-91.

Jefferson T, Del Mar C, Dooley L, et al. Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006207.pub3.

Kaewchana S, Simmerman M, Somrongthong R, Suntarattiwong P, Lertmaharit S, Chotipitayasunondh T. Effect of intensive hand washing education on hand washing behaviors in Thai households with an influenza-positive child in urban Thailand. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2012;24:577-85. (i)

Lau CH, Springston EE, Sohn MW, et al. Hand hygiene instruction decreases illness-related absenteeism in elementary schools: a prospective cohort study. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:52.

Liu M, Ou J, Zhang L, et al. Protective effect of hand-washing and good hygienic habits against seasonal influenza: a case-control study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(11):e3046.

Meilicke G, Riedmann K, Biederbick W, Müller U, Wierer T, Bartels C. Hygiene perception changes during the influenza A H1N1 pandemic in Germany: incorporating the results of two cross-sectional telephone surveys 2008-2009. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:959. (i)

Mitchell T, Massoudi M, Swerdlow DL, et al. Swine flu in college: early campus response to outbreak control measures. Am J Health Behav. 2014;38:448-64. (i)

Park JH, Cheong HK, Son DY, Kim SU, Ha CM. Perceptions and behaviors related to hand hygiene for the prevention of H1N1 influenza transmission among Korean university students during the peak pandemic period. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10:222. (i)

Priest P, McKenzie JE, Audas R, Poore M, Brunton C, Reeves L. Hand sanitiser provision for reducing illness absences in primary school children: a cluster randomised trial. PLoS Med. 2014;11(8):e1001700.

Savolainen-Kopra C, Haapakoski J, Peltola PA, et al. Hand washing with soap and water together with behavioural recommendations prevents infections in common work environment: an open cluster-randomized trial. Trials. 2012;13:10.

Stebbins S, Stark JH, Vukotich CJ Jr. Compliance with a multilayered nonpharmaceutical intervention in an urban elementary school setting. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2010;16:316-24. (i)

Stedman-Smith M, DuBois CL, Grey SF, et al. Outcomes of a pilot hand hygiene randomized cluster trial to reduce communicable infections among US office-based employees. J Occup Environ Med. 2015;57(4):374-80.

SteelFisher GK, Blendon RJ, Bekheit MM, Lubell K. The public’s response to the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:e65. (i)

SteelFisher GK, Blendon RJ, Ward JRM, Rapoport R, Kahn E, Kohl K. Public response to the 2009 influenza A H1N1 pandemic: a polling study in five countries. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12:845-50. (i)

Talaat M, Afifi S, Dueger E, et al. Effects of hand hygiene campaigns on incidence of laboratory-confirmed influenza and absenteeism in schoolchildren, Cairo, Egypt. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:619-25.

Timpka T, Spreco A, Gursky E, Eriksson O, Dahlström Ö, Strömgren M. Intentions to perform non-pharmaceutical protective behaviors during influenza outbreaks in Sweden: a cross-sectional study following a mass vaccination campaign. PLoS One. 2014;9(3):e91060. (i)

Tuladhar E, Hazeleger WC, Koopmans M, et al. Reducing viral contamination from finger pads: handwashing is more effective than alcohol-based hand disinfectants. J Hosp Infect. 2015;90:226-34. (i)

Vukotich CJ Jr, Coulborn RM, Aragon TJ, et al. Findings, gaps, and future direction for research in nonpharmaceutical interventions for pandemic influenza. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16:e2. (i)

Warren-Gash C, Fragaszy E, Hayward AC. Hand hygiene to reduce community transmission of influenza and acute respiratory tract infection: a systematic review. Influenza Other Respi Viruses. 2012;7:738-49.

Willmott M, Nicholson A, Busse H, MacArthur GJ, Brookes S, Campbell R. Effectiveness of hand hygiene interventions in reducing illness absence among children in educational settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child. 2016;101(1):42-50.

Wong VW, Cowling BJ, Aiello AE. Hand hygiene and risk of influenza virus infections in the community: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2014;142:922-32.

Wu JT, Riley S, Fraser C, Leung GM. Reducing the impact of the next influenza pandemic using household-based public health interventions. PLoS Med. 2006;3(9):e261.

Wu S, Ma C, Yang Z, et al. Hygiene behaviors associated with influenza-like illness among adults in Beijing, China: a large, population-based survey. PLoS One. 2016; 11(2):e0148448.

Personal NPIs for Use During a Pandemic (voluntary home quarantine, use of face masks)

Aiello AE, Murray GF, Perez V, et al. Mask use, hand hygiene, and seasonal influenza-like illness among young adults: a randomized intervention trial. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:491-8.

Aiello AE, Perez V, Coulborn RM, Davis BM, Uddin M, Monto AS. Facemasks, hand hygiene, and influenza among young adults: a randomized intervention trial. PLoS One. 2012;7(1):e29744.

Bin-Reza F, Lopez VC, Nicoll A, Chamberland ME. The use of masks and respirators to prevent transmission of influenza: a systematic review of the scientific evidence. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2012;6:257-67.

Canini L, Andreoletti L, Ferrari P, et al. Surgical mask to prevent influenza transmission in households: a cluster randomized trial. PLoS One. 2010;5(11):e13998.

CowlingBJ, Chan KH, Fang VJ, et al. Facemasks and hand hygiene to prevent influenza transmission in households: a cluster randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2009;151:437-46.

Cowling BJ, Fung RO, Cheng CK, et al. Preliminary findings of a randomized trial of non-pharmaceutical interventions to prevent influenza transmission in households. PLoS One. 2008;3(5):e2101.

Cowling BJ, Zhou Y, Ip DKM, Leung GM, Aiello AE. Face masks to prevent influenza transmission: a systematic review. Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138:449-56.

Davies A, Thompson KA, Giri K, Kafatos G, Walker J, Bennett A. Testing the efficacy of homemade masks: would they protect in an influenza pandemic? Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2013;7:413-8.

Johnson DF, Druce JD, Birch C, Grayson ML. A quantitative assessment of the efficacy of surgical and N95 masks to filter influenza virus in patients with acute influenza infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:275-7.

Kavanagh AM, Bentley RJ, Mason KE, et al. Sources, perceived usefulness and understanding of information disseminated to families who entered home quarantine during the H1N1 pandemic in Victoria, Australia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11:2. (i)

Lai AC, Poon CK, Cheung AC. Effectiveness of facemasks to reduce exposure hazards for airborne infections among general populations. J R Soc Interface. 2012;9:938-48.

Li X, Geng W, Tian H, Lai D. Was mandatory quarantine necessary in China for controlling the 2009 H1N1 pandemic? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013;10:4690-700.

Li Y, Guo YP, Wong KC, Chung WY, Gohel MD, Leung HM. Transmission of communicable respiratory infections and facemasks. J Multidiscip Healthc. 2008;1:17-27.

MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA. Facemasks for the prevention of infection in healthcare and community settings. BMJ. 2015;350:h694.

Milton DK, Fabian MP, Cowling BJ, Grantham ML, McDevitt JJ. Influenza virus aerosols in human exhaled breath: particle size, culturability, and effect of surgical masks. PLoS Pathog. 2013;9(3):e1003205.

Rothstein MA, Talbott MK. Encouraging compliance with quarantine: a proposal to provide job security and income replacement. Am J Public Health. 2007;97 Suppl 1:S49-56. (i)

Sim SW, Moey KS, Tan NC. The use of facemasks to prevent respiratory infection: a literature review in the context of the Health Belief Model. Singapore Med J. 2014;55:160-7. (i)

Simmerman JM, Suntarattiwong P, Levy J, et al. Findings from a household randomized controlled trial of hand washing and face masks to reduce influenza transmission in Bangkok, Thailand. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2011;5:256-67.

Suess T, Remschmidt C, Schink SB, et al. The role of facemasks and hand hygiene in the prevention of influenza transmission in households: results from a cluster randomized trial; Berlin, Germany, 2009-2011. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:26.

Tognotti E. Lessons from the history of quarantine, from plague to influenza A. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:254-9.

Wada K, Oka-Ezoe K, Smith DR. Wearing face masks in public during the influenza season may reflect other positive hygiene practices in Japan. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:1065. (i)

Influenza in School-aged Children in the Community

Besculides M, Heffernan R, Mostashari F, et al. Evaluation of school absenteeism data for early outbreak detection, New York City. BMC Public Health. 2005;5:105.

Caley P, Philp DJ, McCracken K. Quantifying social distancing arising from pandemic influenza. J R Soc Interface. 2008;5:631-9.

Chao DL, Halloran ME, Longini IM Jr. School opening dates predict pandemic influenza (A) H1N1 epidemics in the USA. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:877-80.

Chowell G, Echevarría-Zuno S, Viboud C, et al. Characterizing the epidemiology of the 2009 influenza A/H1N1 pandemic in Mexico. PLoS Med. 2011;8(5):e1000436.

Egger JR, Hoen AG, Brownstein JS, Buckeridge DL, Olson DR, Konty KJ. Usefulness of school absenteeism data for predicting influenza outbreaks, United States. Letter to Editor. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(8)1375–7.

Garza RC, Basurto-Dávila R, Ortega-Sanchez IR, et al. Effect of winter school breaks on influenza-like illness, Argentina, 2005–2008. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:938–44.

Langmuir AD, Pizzi M, Trotter WY, Dunn FL. Asian influenza surveillance. Public Health Rep. 1958;73:114–20.

Nasrullah M, Breiding MJ, Smith W, et al. Response to 2009 pandemic influenza A H1N1 among public schools of Georgia, United States–fall 2009. Int J Infect Dis. 2012;16(5):e382–90. (i)

Viboud C, Boëlle P-Y, Cauchemez S, et al. Risk factors of influenza transmission in households. Br J Gen Pract. 2004;54(506):684–9.

Effect of School Closures on Influenza Transmission in Schools and Communities

Ali ST, Kadi AS, Ferguson NM. Transmission dynamics of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in India: the impact of holiday-related school closure. Epidemics. 2013;5:157–63.

Araz OM, Damien P, Paltiel DA, et al. Simulating school closure policies for cost effective pandemic decision making. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:449.

Awofisayo A, Ibbotson S, Smith GE, Janmohamed K, Mohamed H, Olowokure B. Challenges and lessons learned from implementing a risk-based approach to school advice and closure during the containment phase of the 2009 influenza pandemic in the West Midlands, England. Public Health. 2013;127:637–43. (i)

Berkman BE. Mitigating pandemic influenza: the ethics of implementing a school closure policy. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2008;14:372–8. (i)

Braunack-Mayer A, Tooher R, Collins JE, Street JM, Marshall H. Understanding the school community’s response to school closures during the H1N1 2009 influenza pandemic. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:344. (i)

Borse RH, Behravesh CB, Dumanovsky T, et al. Closing schools in response to the 2009 pandemic influenza A H1N1 virus in New York City: economic impact on households. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:S168-S172. (i)

Cauchemez S, Van Kerkhove MD, Archer BN, et al. School closures during the 2009 influenza pandemic: national and local experiences. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:207.

Cauchemez S, Valleron AJ, Boëlle PY, Flahault A, Ferguson NM. Estimating the impact of school closure on influenza transmission from sentinel data. Nature. 2008;452:750-4.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Parental attitudes and experiences during school dismissals related to 2009 influenza A (H1N1) –United States, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:1131-4. (i)

Chen WC, Huang AS, Chuang JH, Chiu CC, Kuo HS. Social and economic impact of school closure resulting from pandemic influenza A/H1N1. J Infect. 2011;62:200-3. (i)

Community Preventive Services Task Force. Emergency Preparedness and Response: School Dismissals to Reduce Transmission of Pandemic Influenza. The Community Guide; 2012.

Copeland DL, Basurto-Davila R, Chung W, et al. Effectiveness of a school district closure for pandemic influenza A (H1N1) on acute respiratory illnesses in the community: a natural experiment. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:509-16.

Davis BM, Markel H, Navarro A, Wells E, Monto AS, Aiello AE. The effect of reactive school closure on community influenza-like illness counts in the state of Michigan during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60(12):e90-7. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ182.

Earn DJ, He D, Loeb M, Fonseca K, Lee BE, Dushoff J. Effects of school closure on incidence of pandemic influenza in Alberta, Canada. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156:173-81.

Effler PV, Carcione D, Giele C, Dowse GK, Goggin L, Mak DB. Household responses to pandemic (H1N1) 2009-related school closures, Perth, Western Australia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16:205-11. (i)

Epson E, Zheteyeva Y, Rainey J, et al. Evaluation of an unplanned school closure in a Colorado school district: implications for pandemic influenza preparedness. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2015;9(1):4-8. (i)

Fung IC-H, Gambhir M, Glasser JW, et al. Modeling the effect of school closures in a pandemic scenario: exploring two different contact matrices. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60 Suppl 1:S58-S63. (i)

Gift TL, Palekar RS, Sodha SV, et al. Household effects of school closure during pandemic (H1N1) 2009, Pennsylvania, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16:1315-7. (i)

Halder N, Kelso JK, Milne GJ. Developing guidelines for school closure interventions to be used during a future influenza pandemic. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10:221.

Heymann A, Chodick G, Reichman B, Kokia E, Laufer J. Influence of school closure on the incidence of viral respiratory diseases among children and on health care utilization. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:675–7.

Heymann AD, Hoch I, Valinsky L, Kokia E, Steinberg DM. School closure may be effective in reducing transmission of respiratory viruses in the community. Epidemiol Infect. 2009;137:1369-76.

Jackson C, Vynnycky E, Hawker J, Olowokure B, Mangtani P. School closures and influenza: systematic review of epidemiological studies. BMJ Open. 2013;3(2). pii:e002149.

Johnson AJ, Moore ZS, Edelson PJ, et al. Household responses to school closure resulting from outbreak of influenza B, North Carolina. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:1024–30. (i)

Kann L, Kinchen S, Modzelski B, et al. ILI-related school dismissal monitoring system: an overview and assessment. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2012;6(2):104–12.

Lee BY, Brown ST, Cooley P, et al. Simulating school closure strategies to mitigate an influenza epidemic. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2010;16:252–61.

McVernon J, Mason K, Petrony S, et al. Recommendations for and compliance with social restrictions during implementation of school closures in the early phase of the influenza A (H1N1) 2009 outbreak in Melbourne, Australia. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11:257. (i)

Miller JC, Danon L, O’Hagan JJ, Goldstein E, Lajous M, Lipsitch M. Student behavior during a school closure caused by pandemic influenza A/H1N1. PLoS One. 2010;5(5):e10425. (i)

Milne GJ, Kelso JK, Kelly HA, Huband ST, McVernon J. A small community model for the transmission of infectious diseases: comparison of school closure as an intervention in individual-based models of an influenza pandemic. PLoS One. 2008;3(12):e4005.

Mizumoto K, Yamamoto T, Nishiura H. Contact behaviour of children and parental employment behaviour during school closures against the pandemic influenza A (H1N1-2009) in Japan. J Int Med Res. 2013;41:716–24. (i)

Morimoto T, Ishikawa H. Assessment of intervention strategies against a novel influenza epidemic using an individual-based model. Environ Health Prev Med. 2010;15:151–61.

Potter MA, Brown ST, Cooley PC, et al. School closure as an influenza mitigation strategy: how variations in legal authority and plan criteria can alter the impact. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:977. (i)

Russell ES, Zheteyeva Y, Gao H, et al. Reactive school closure during increased influenza-like illness (ILI) activity in western Kentucky, 2013: a field evaluation of effect on ILI incidence and economic and social consequences for families. Open Forum Infect Diseases. 2016;3(3). doi:10.1093/ofid/ofw113. (i)

Sadique MZ, Adams EJ, Edmunds WJ. Estimating the costs of school closure for mitigating an influenza pandemic. BMC Public Health. 2008;8:135. (i)

Sasaki A, Hoen AG, Ozonoff A, et al. Evidence-based tool for triggering school closures during influenza outbreaks, Japan. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:1841–3. (i)

Shi J, Njai R, Wells E, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of nonpharmaceutical interventions following school dismissals during the 2009 Influenza A H1N1 pandemic in Michigan, United States. PLoS One. 2014;9(4):e94290. (i)

Stern AM, Cetron MS, Markel H. Closing the schools: lessons from the 1918-19 U.S. influenza pandemic. Health Aff (Millwood). 2009;28:w1066–78. (i)

Sypsa V, Hatzakis A. School closure is currently the main strategy to mitigate influenza A(H1N1)v: a modeling study. Euro Surveill. 2009;14(24). pii19240.

Uchida M, Kaneko M, Kawa S. Role of household factors in parental attitudes to pandemic influenza related school closure in Japan: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2014 ;14:1089. (i)

Uchida M, Tsukahara T, Kaneko M, Washizuka S, Kawa S. Effect of short-term school closures on the H1N1 pandemic in Japan: a comparative case study. Infection. 2012;40:549-56.

Wheeler CC, Erhart LM, Jehn MI. Effect of school closure on the incidence of influenza among school age children in Arizona. Public Health Rep. 2010;125:851-9.

Wong KK, Shi J, Gao H, et al. Why is school closed today? Unplanned K-12 school closures in the United States, 2011-2013. PLoS One. 2014;9(12):e113755.

Xue Y, Kristiansen IS, de Blasio BF. Dynamic modelling of costs and health consequences of school closure during an influenza pandemic. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:962.

Yasuda H, Yoshizawa N, Kimura M, et al. Preparedness for the spread of influenza: prohibition of traffic, school closure, and vaccination of children in the commuter towns of Tokyo. J Urban Health. 2008;85:619-35.

Zhang T, Fu X, Kwoh CK, et al. Temporal factors in school closure policy for mitigating the spread of influenza. J Public Health Policy. 2011;32:180-97.

Zhang T, Fu X, Ma S, et al. Evaluating temporal factors in combined interventions of workforce shift and school closure for mitigating the spread of influenza. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e32203.

Social Distancing (general principles)

Aburto NJ, Pevzner E, Lopez-Ridaura R, et al. Knowledge and adoption of community mitigation efforts in Mexico during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. Am J Prev Med. 2010;39:395-402. (i)

Bolton KJ, McCaw JM, Moss R, et al. Likely effectiveness of pharmaceutical and non- pharmaceutical interventions for mitigating influenza virus transmission in Mongolia. Bull World Health Organ. 2012;90:264-71.

Halloran ME, Ferguson NM, Eubank S, et al. Modeling targeted layered containment of an influenza pandemic in the United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105:4639-44.

Hatchett RJ, Mecher CE, Lipsitch M. Public health interventions and epidemic intensity during the 1918 influenza pandemic. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:7582-7.

Herrera-Valdez M, Cruz-Aponte M, Castillo-Chavez C. Multiple outbreaks for the same pandemic: local transportation and social distancing explain the different “waves” of A H1N1 pandemic cases observed in México during 2009. Math Biosci Eng. 2011;8:21-48.

Kelso JK, Milne GJ, Kelly HA. Simulation suggests that rapid activation of social distancing can arrest epidemic development due to a novel strain of influenza. BMC Public Health. 2009;9:117.

Markel H, Lipman HB, Navarro JA, et al. Nonpharmaceutical interventions implemented by US cities during the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic. JAMA. 2007;298:644-54.

Rashid H, Ridda I, King C, et al. Evidence compendium and advice on social distancing and other related measures for response to an influenza pandemic [published online January 31, 2014]. Paediatr Respir Rev. pii:S1526-0542(14)00016-5. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2014.01.003.

Yang Y, Atkinson PM, Ettema D. Analysis of CDC social control measures using an agent-based simulation of an influenza epidemic in a city. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11:199.

Workplaces and Influenza

Albertí C, Orriols R, Manzanera R, Jardí J. Flu and other acute respiratory infections in the working population: the impact of influenza A (H1N1) epidemic. Arch Bronconeumol. 2010;46:634-9. (i)

Blake KD, Blendon RJ, Viswanath K. Employment and compliance with pandemic influenza mitigation recommendations. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16(2):212-18.

Edwards CH, Tomba GS, de Blasio BF. Influenza in workplaces: transmission, workers’ adherence to sick leave advice and European sick leave recommendations. Eur J Public Health. 2016;26:478-85. (i)

Kumar S, Grefenstette JJ, Galloway D, Albert SM, Burke DS. Policies to reduce influenza in the workplace: impact assessments using an agent-based model. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:1406-11.

Kumar S, Quinn SC, Kim KH, Daniel LH, Freimuth VS. The impact of workplace policies and other social factors on self-reported influenza-like illness incidence during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. Am J Public Health. 2012;102:134-40.

Mao L. Evaluating the combined effectiveness of influenza control strategies and human preventive behavior. PLoS One, 2011;6(10):e24706.

Miyaki K, Sakurazawa H, Mikurube H, et al. An effective quarantine measure reduced the total incidence of influenza A H1N1 in the workplace: another way to control the H1N1 flu pandemic. J Occup Health. 2011;53:287-92.

Rousculp MD, Johnston SS, Palmer LA, Chu BC, Mahadevia PJ, Nichol KL. Attending work while sick: implication of flexible sick leave policies. J Occup Environ Med. 2010;52:1009-13. (i)

Mass Gatherings and Influenza

Alqahtani AS, Wiley KE, Tashani M, et al. Exploring barriers to and facilitators of preventive measures against infectious diseases among Australian Hajj pilgrims: cross-sectional studies before and after Hajj. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;47:53-9. (i)

Gutiérrez I, Litzroth A, Hammadi S, et al. Community transmission of influenza A (H1N1) virus at a rock festival in Belgium, 2-5 July 2009. Euro Surveill. 2009;14(31). pii:19294. (i)

Hashim S, Ayub ZN, Mohamed Z, et al. The prevalence and preventive measures of the respiratory illness among Malaysian pilgrims in 2013 Hajj season. J Travel Med. 2016;23(2):tav019. (i)

Ishola DA, Phin N. Could influenza transmission be reduced by restricting mass gatherings? Towards an evidence-based policy framework. J Epidemiol Glob Health. 2011;1:33-60.

Lim HC, Cutter J, Lim WK, Ee A, Wong YC, Tay BK. The influenza A (H1N1-2009) experience at the inaugural Asian Youth Games Singapore 2009: mass gathering during a developing pandemic. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44:528-32.

Loncarevic G, Payne L, Kon P, et al. Public health preparedness for two mass gathering events in the context of pandemic influenza (H1N1) 2009-Serbia, July 2009. Euro Surveill. 2009 ;14(31). pii:19296. (i)

Memish ZA, Assiri A, Turkestani A, et al. Mass gathering and globalization of respiratory pathogens during the 2013 Hajj. Clin Microbial Infect. 2015;21:571. (i)

Public Health Agency of Canada. Public health guidance for the prevention and management of influenza-like-illness (ILI), including the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza virus, related to mass gatherings. British Columbia: Public Health Agency of Canada; 2009. (i)

Rainey JJ, Phelps T, Shi J. Mass gatherings and respiratory disease outbreaks in the United States–should we be worried? Results from a systematic literature review and analysis of the National Outbreak Reporting System. PLoS One. 2016;11(8):e0160378.

Rashid H, Haworth E, Shafi S, Memish ZA, Booy R. Pandemic influenza: mass gatherings and mass infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2008;8:526-7. (i)

van Hal SJ, Foo H, Blyth CC, et al. Influenza outbreak during Sydney World Youth Day 2008: the utility of laboratory testing and case definitions on mass gathering outbreak containment. PLoS One. 2009;4(9):e6620. (i)

World Health Organization. Interim planning considerations for mass gatherings in the context of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2009. (i)

Surface Cleaning

Bean B, Moore BM, Sterner B, Peterson LR, Gerding DN, Balfour HEH Jr. Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces. J Infect Dis. 1982;146:47-51.

Boone SA, Gerba CP. The occurrence of influenza A virus on household and day care center fomites. J Infect. 2005;51:103-9

Goyal SM, Chander Y, Yezli S, Otter JA. Evaluating the virucidal efficacy of hydrogen peroxide vapour. J Hosp Infect. 2014;86:255-9.

Jeong EK, Bae JE, Kim IS. Inactivation of influenza A virus H1N1 by disinfection process. Am J Infect Control. 2010;38:354-60.

Oxford J, Berezin EN, Courvalin P, et al. The survival of influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 virus on 4 household surfaces. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42:423-5.

Patnayak DP, Prasad M, Malik YS, Ramakrishnan MA, Goyal SM. Efficacy of disinfectants and hand sanitizers against avian respiratory viruses. Avian Dis. 2008;52:199-202.

Pillet S, Berthelot P, Gagneux-Brunon A, et al. Contamination of healthcare workers’ mobile phones by epidemic viruses. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22(5):456.e1-6. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2015.12.008.

Rudnick SN, McDevitt JJ, First MW, Spengler JD. Inactivating influenza viruses on surfaces using hydrogen peroxide or triethylene glycol at low vapor concentrations. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37:813-9.

Simmerman JM, Suntarattiwong P, Levy J, et al. Influenza virus contamination of common household surfaces during the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in Bangkok, Thailand: implications for contact transmission. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:1053-61.

Thomas Y, Vogel G, Wunderli W, et al. Survival of influenza virus on banknotes. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74:3002-7.

Weber TP, Stilianakis NI. Inactivation of influenza A viruses in the environment and modes of transmission: a critical review. J Infect. 2008;57:361-73.

Zeitler B, Rapp I. Surface-dried viruses can resist glucoprotamin-based disinfection. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2014;80:7169-75.

Related Links

TOP