Skip directly to search Skip directly to A to Z list Skip directly to navigation Skip directly to page options Skip directly to site content
Treatment Sexually Transmitted Diseases

References

Evidence Papers for the CDC Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines. Clinical Infectious Diseases, Volume 61   suppl 8   December 15, 2015

  1. CDC. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010;59(No. RR-12).
  2. CDC. Prevention of hepatitis A through active or passive immunization: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2006;55(No. RR-7).
  3. CDC. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) part II: immunization of adults. MMWR Recomm Rep 2006;55(No. RR-16).
  4. CDC. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) part 1: immunization of infants, children, and adolescents. MMWR Recomm Rep 2005;54(No. RR-16).
  5. CDC. A guide to taking a sexual history. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC. Available at www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/SexualHistory.pdf.
  6. O'Connor EA, Lin JS, Burda BU, et al. USPSTF: behavioral sexual risk-reduction counseling in primary care to prevent sexually transmitted infections. Ann Intern Med 2014;161:874–83.
  7. LeFevre ML. USPSTF: behavioral counseling interventions to prevent sexually transmitted infections. Ann Intern Med 2014;161:894–901.
  8. Kamb ML, Fishbein M, Douglas JM, Jr., et al. Efficacy of risk-reduction counseling to prevent human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted diseases: a randomized controlled trial. Project RESPECT Study Group. JAMA 1998;280:1161–7.
  9. Metsch LR, Feaster DJ, Gooden L, et al. Effect of risk-reduction counseling with rapid HIV testing on risk of acquiring sexually transmitted infections: the AWARE randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2013;310:1701–10.
  10. Patel P, Bush T, Mayer K, et al. Routine brief risk-reduction counseling with biannual STD testing reduces STD incidence among HIV-infected men who have sex with men in care. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:470–4.
  11. Warner L, Klausner JD, Rietmeijer CA, et al. Effect of a brief video intervention on incident infection among patients attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. PLoS Med 2008;5:919–27. 
  12. CDC, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Institutes of Health, American Academy of HIV Medicine, Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, International Association of Providers of AIDS Care, the National Minority AIDS Council, and Urban Coalition for HIV/AIDS Prevention Services. Recommendations for HIV Prevention with Adults and Adolescents with HIV in the United States, 2014. Available at http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/26062 .
  13. Gilbert P, Ciccarone D, Gansky SA, et al. Interactive "video doctor" counseling reduces drug and sexual risk behaviors among HIV-positive patients in diverse outpatient settings. PLoS One 2008;3:e1988.
  14. Richardson JL, Milam J, McCutchan A, et al. Effect of brief safer-sex counseling by medical providers to HIV-1 seropositive patients: a multi-clinic assessment. AIDS 2004;18:1179–86.
  15. Fisher JD, Cornman DH, Osborn CY, et al. Clinician-initiated HIV risk reduction intervention for HIV-positive persons: formative research, acceptability, and fidelity of the Options Project. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004;37(Suppl 2):S78–S87.
  16. Markowitz LE, Dunne EF, Saraiya M, et al. Human papillomavirus vaccination: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2014;63(No. RR-05).
  17. Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Ghanem KG, et al. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with HIV: 2013 update by the HIV medicine association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2014;58:e1–34.
  18. Anderson C, Gallo MF, Hylton-Kong T, et al. Randomized controlled trial on the effectiveness of counseling messages for avoiding unprotected sexual intercourse during sexually transmitted infection and reproductive tract infection treatment among female sexually transmitted infection clinic patients. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:105–10.
  19. Hatcher RA, Trussel J, Nelson  AL, et al. Contraceptive Technology, 20th Edition. New York: Ardent Media; 2012.
  20. Weller S, Davis K. Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;1:CD003255.
  21. Smith DK, Herbst JH, Zhang X, et al. Condom efficacy by consistency of use among MSM. http://www.aidsmap.com/Consistent-condom-use-in-anal-sex-stops-70-of-HIV-infections-study-finds-but-intermittent-use-has-no-effect/page/2586976/. Paper presented at: US 20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Atlanta 2013.
  22. Crosby RA, Charnigo RA, Weathers C, et al. Condom effectiveness against non-viral sexually transmitted infections: a prospective study using electronic daily diaries. Sex Transm Infect 2012;88:484–9.
  23. Holmes KK, Levine R, Weaver M. Effectiveness of condoms in preventing sexually transmitted infections. Bull World Health Organ 2004;82:454–61.
  24. Warner L, Stone KM, Macaluso M, et al. Condom use and risk of gonorrhea and Chlamydia: a systematic review of design and measurement factors assessed in epidemiologic studies. Sex Transm Dis 2006;33:36–51.
  25. Ness RB, Randall H, Richter HE, et al. Condom use and the risk of recurrent pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic pelvic pain, or infertility following an episode of pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Public Health 2004;94:1327–9.
  26. Koss CA, Dunne EF, Warner L. A systematic review of epidemiologic studies assessing condom use and risk of syphilis. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:401–5.
  27. Martin ET, Krantz E, Gottlieb SL, et al. A pooled analysis of the effect of condoms in preventing HSV-2 acquisition. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:1233–40.
  28. Winer RL, Hughes JP, Feng QH, et al. Condom use and the risk of genital human papillomavirus infection in young women. New England Journal of Medicine 2006;354:2645–54.
  29. Bleeker MCG, Hogewoning CJA, Voorhorst FJ, et al. Condom use promotes regression of human papillomavirus-associated penile lesions in male sexual partners of women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. International Journal of Cancer 2003;107:804–10.
  30. Hogewoning CJA, Bleeker MCG, van den Brule AJC, et al. Condom use promotes regression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and clearance of human papillomavirus: a randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Cancer 2003;107:811–6.
  31. Bernabe-Ortiz A, Carcamo CP, Scott JD, et al. HBV infection in relation to consistent condom use: a population-based study in Peru. PLoS One 2011;6:e24721.
  32. Minuk GY, Bohme CE, Bowen TJ, et al. Efficacy of commercial condoms in the prevention of hepatitis B virus infection. Gastroenterology 1987;93:710–4.
  33. Hernandez-Romieu AC, Siegler AJ, Sullivan PS, et al. How often do condoms fail? A cross-sectional study exploring incomplete use of condoms, condom failures and other condom problems among black and white MSM in southern USA. Sex Transm Infect 2014.
  34. D'Anna LH, Margolis AD, Warner L, et al. Condom use problems during anal sex among men who have sex with men (MSM): findings from the Safe in the City study. AIDS Care 2012;24:1028–38.
  35. Steiner MJ, Cates W, Jr., Warner L. The real problem with male condoms is nonuse. Sex Transm Dis 1999;26:459–62.
  36. Gallo MF, Kilbourne-Brook M, Coffey PS. A review of the effectiveness and acceptability of the female condom for dual protection. Sex Health 2012;9:18–26.
  37. Mantell JE, Kelvin EA, Exner TM, et al. Anal use of the female condom: does uncertainty justify provider inaction? AIDS Care 2009;21:1185–94.
  38. Rosenberg MJ, Davidson AJ, Chen JH, et al. Barrier contraceptives and sexually transmitted diseases in women: a comparison of female-dependent methods and condoms. Am J Public Health 1992;82:669–74.
  39. de Bruyn G, Shiboski S, van der Straten A, et al. The effect of the vaginal diaphragm and lubricant gel on acquisition of HSV-2. Sex Transm Infect 2011;87:301–5.
  40. Ramjee G, van der Straten A, Chipato T, et al. The diaphragm and lubricant gel for prevention of cervical sexually transmitted infections: results of a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2008;3:e3488.
  41. Wilkinson D, Tholandi M, Ramjee G, et al. Nonoxynol-9 spermicide for prevention of vaginally acquired HIV and other sexually transmitted infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials including more than 5000 women. Lancet Infect Dis 2002;2:613–7.
  42. McCormack S, Ramjee G, Kamali A, et al. PRO2000 vaginal gel for prevention of HIV-1 infection (Microbicides Development Programme 301): a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, parallel-group trial. Lancet 2010;376:1329–37.
  43. Skoler-Karpoff S, Ramjee G, Ahmed K, et al. Efficacy of Carraguard for prevention of HIV infection in women in South Africa: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2008;372:1977–87.
  44. Van Damme L, Govinden R, Mirembe FM, et al. Lack of effectiveness of cellulose sulfate gel for the prevention of vaginal HIV transmission. N Engl J Med 2008;359:463–72.
  45. Feldblum PJ, Adeiga A, Bakare R, et al. SAVVY vaginal gel (C31G) for prevention of HIV infection: a randomized controlled trial in Nigeria. PLoS One 2008;3:e1474.
  46. Hooton TM, Roberts PL, Stamm WE. Effects of recent sexual activity and use of a diaphragm on the vaginal microflora. Clin Infect Dis 1994;19:274–8.
  47. Fihn SD, Boyko EJ, Normand EH, et al. Association between use of spermicide-coated condoms and Escherichia coli urinary tract infection in young women. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144:512–20.
  48. Polis CB, Curtis KM. Use of hormonal contraceptives and HIV acquisition in women: a systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13:797–808.
  49. WHO. Hormonal contraception and HIV. World Health Organization: Geneva; 2012.
  50. CDC. Update to CDC's US medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use, 2010: revised recommendations for the use of hormonal contraception among women at high risk for HIV infection or infected with HIV. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012;61:449-52.
  51. Gray RH, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, et al. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial. Lancet 2007;369:657–66.
  52. Bailey RC, Moses S, Parker CB, et al. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007;369:643–56.
  53. Auvert B, Taljaard D, Lagarde E, et al. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: the ANRS 1265 Trial. PLoS Med 2005;2:e298.
  54. Tobian AA, Serwadda D, Quinn TC, et al. Male circumcision for the prevention of HSV-2 and HPV infections and syphilis. N Engl J Med 2009;360:1298–309.
  55. Auvert B, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Cutler E, et al. Effect of male circumcision on the prevalence of high-risk human papillomavirus in young men: results of a randomized controlled trial conducted in Orange Farm, South Africa. J Infect Dis 2009;199:14–9.
  56. Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Taljaard D, Nieuwoudt M, et al. Male circumcision and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis and Trichomonas vaginalis: observations after a randomised controlled trial for HIV prevention. Sex Transm Infect 2009;85:116–20.
  57. Gray R, Kigozi G, Kong X, et al. The effectiveness of male circumcision for HIV prevention and effects on risk behaviors in a posttrial follow-up study. AIDS 2012;26:609–15.
  58. Mehta SD, Moses S, Parker CB, et al. Circumcision status and incident herpes simplex virus type 2 infection, genital ulcer disease, and HIV infection. AIDS 2012;26:1141–9.
  59. WHO/UNAIDS. New data on male circumcision and HIV prevention: policy and programme implications.  WHO/UNAIDS Technical Consultation on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention: Research Implications for Policy and Programming, March 6-8, 2007; Montreux. 2007.
  60. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision. Circumcision policy statement. Pediatrics 2012;130:585–6.
  61. American Urological Association. Circumcision policy statement, 2007. Available at http://www.auanet.org/guidelines/circumcision
  62. Wiysonge CS, Kongnyuy EJ, Shey M, et al. Male circumcision for prevention of homosexual acquisition of HIV in men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;(6):CD007496.
  63. CDC. U.S. Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: Adapted from the World Health Organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd ed. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013;62(No. RR-05).
  64. Fine P, Mathe H, Ginde S, et al. Ulipristal acetate taken 48-120 hours after intercourse for emergency contraception. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:257–63.
  65. Glasier AF, Cameron ST, Fine PM, et al. Ulipristal acetate versus levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a randomised non-inferiority trial and meta-analysis. Lancet 2010;375:555–62.
  66. Cleland K, Zhu H, Goldstuck N, et al. The efficacy of intrauterine devices for emergency contraception: a systematic review of 35 years of experience. Human reproduction 2012;27:1994–2000.
  67. Cheng L, Che Y, Gulmezoglu AM. Interventions for emergency contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;8:CD001324.
  68. Myer L, Kuhn L, Stein ZA, et al. Intravaginal practices, bacterial vaginosis, and women's susceptibility to HIV infection: epidemiological evidence and biological mechanisms. Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:786–94.
  69. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 2011;365:493–505.
  70. DHHS Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents; 2013. Available at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adultandadolescentgl.pdf
  71. Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med 2010;362:427–39.
  72. Celum C, Wald A, Hughes J, et al. Effect of aciclovir on HIV-1 acquisition in herpes simplex virus 2 seropositive women and men who have sex with men: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2008;371:2109–19.
  73. Grohskopf LA, Chillag KL, Gvetadze R, et al. Randomized trial of clinical safety of daily oral tenofovir disoproxil fumarate among HIV-uninfected men who have sex with men in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013;64:79–86.
  74. Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2587–99.
  75. Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med 2012;367:399–410.
  76. Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med 2012;367:423–34.
  77. Choopanya K, Martin M, Suntharasamai P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV infection in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand (the Bangkok Tenofovir Study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet 2013;381:2083–90.
  78. Patterson KB, Prince HA, Kraft E, et al. Penetration of tenofovir and emtricitabine in mucosal tissues: implications for prevention of HIV-1 transmission. Sci Transl Med 2011;3:112–4.
  79. van der Straten A, Van Damme L, Haberer JE, et al. Unraveling the divergent results of pre-exposure prophylaxis trials for HIV prevention. AIDS 2012;26:F13–9.
  80. Golden MR, Dombrowski JC, Kerani RP, et al. Failure of serosorting to protect African American men who have sex with men from HIV infection. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:659–64.
  81. Philip SS, Yu X, Donnell D, et al. Serosorting is associated with a decreased risk of HIV seroconversion in the EXPLORE Study Cohort. PLoS One 2010;5.
  82. Vallabhaneni S, Li X, Vittinghoff E, et al. Seroadaptive practices: association with HIV acquisition among HIV-negative men who have sex with men. PLoS One 2012;7:e45718.
  83. Jin F, Prestage GP, Templeton DJ, et al. The impact of HIV seroadaptive behaviors on sexually transmissible infections in HIV-negative homosexual men in Sydney, Australia. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:191–4.
  84. Hotton AL, Gratzer B, Mehta SD. Association between serosorting and bacterial sexually transmitted infection among HIV-negative men who have sex with men at an urban lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health center. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:959–64.
  85. Turner AN, Feldblum PJ, Hoke TH. Baseline infection with a sexually transmitted disease is highly predictive of reinfection during follow-up in Malagasy sex workers. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:559–62.
  86. Peterman TA, Tian LH, Metcalf CA, et al. High incidence of new sexually transmitted infections in the year following a sexually transmitted infection: a case for rescreening. Ann Intern Med 2006;145:564–72.
  87. Trelle S, Shang A, Nartey L, et al. Improved effectiveness of partner notification for patients with sexually transmitted infections: systematic review. BMJ 2007;334:354.
  88. Wilson TE, Hogben M, Malka ES, et al. A randomized controlled trial for reducing risks for sexually transmitted infections through enhanced patient-based partner notification. Am J Public Health 2009;99(Supp1):S104–10.
  89. Yu YY, Frasure-Williams JA, Dunne EF, et al. Chlamydia partner services for females in California family planning clinics. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:913–8.
  90. Mickiewicz T, Al-Tayyib A, Thrun M, et al. Implementation and effectiveness of an expedited partner therapy program in an urban clinic. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:923–9.
  91. Golden MR, Hogben M, Handsfield HH, et al. Partner notification for HIV and STD in the United States: low coverage for gonorrhea, chlamydial infection, and HIV. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:490–6.
  92. Vest JR, Valadez AM, Hanner A, et al. Using e-mail to notify pseudonymous e-mail sexual partners. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:840–5.
  93. Golden MR, Whittington WL, Handsfield HH, et al. Effect of expedited treatment of sex partners on recurrent or persistent gonorrhea or chlamydial infection. N Engl J Med 2005;352:676–85.
  94. Schillinger JA, Kissinger P, Calvet H, et al. Patient-delivered partner treatment with azithromycin to prevent repeated Chlamydia trachomatis infection among women - a randomized, controlled trial. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:49–56.
  95. Kissinger P, Mohammed H, Richardson-Alston G, et al. Patient-delivered partner treatment for male urethritis: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:623–9.
  96. Cameron ST, Glasier A, Scott G, et al. Novel interventions to reduce re-infection in women with chlamydia: a randomized controlled trial. Human reproduction 2009;24:888–95.
  97. Kissinger P, Schmidt N, Mohammed H, et al. Patient-delivered partner treatment for Trichomonas vaginalis infection: a randomized controlled trial. Sex Transm Dis 2006;33:445–50.
  98. Schwebke JR, Desmond RA. A randomized controlled trial of partner notification methods for prevention of trichomoniasis in women. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:392–6.
  99. Stephens SC, Bernstein KT, Katz MH, et al. The effectiveness of patient-delivered partner therapy and chlamydial and gonococcal reinfection in San Francisco. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:525–9.
  100. Kerani RP, Fleming M, DeYoung B, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of inSPOT and patient-delivered partner therapy for gonorrhea and chlamydial infection among men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:941–6.
  101. Stekler J, Bachmann L, Brotman RM, et al. Concurrent sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in sex partners of patients with selected STIs: implications for patient-delivered partner therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:787–93.
  102. McNulty A, Teh MF, Freedman E. Patient delivered partner therapy for chlamydial infection--what would be missed? Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:834–6.
  103. Chou R, Cantor AG, Zakher B, et al. Screening for HIV in pregnant women: systematic review to update the 2005 US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation. Ann Intern Med 2012;157:719–28.
  104. Moyer VA, US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for HIV: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med 2013;159:51–60.
  105. Panel on Treatment of HIV-Infected Pregnant Women and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant HIV-1-infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV transmission in the United States. Available at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/perinatalgl.pdf
  106. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for syphilis infection in pregnancy: reaffirmation recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2009;150:705–9.
  107. US Prevention ServicesTask Force. Screening for hepatitis B virus infection in pregnancy: reaffirmation recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2009;150:869–73.
  108. LeFevre ML. USPSTF: screening for chlamydia and gonorrhea. Ann Intern Med 2014;161:902–10.
  109. Moyer VA. Screening for hepatitis C virus infection in adults: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2013;159:349–57.
  110. Massad LS, Einstein MH, Huh WK, et al. 2012 ASCCP Consensus Guidelines Conference.  2012 updated consensus guidelines for the management of abnormal cervical cancer screening tests and cancer precursors. J Low Genit Tract Dis 2013;17(Suppl 1):S1–27.
  111. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy to prevent preterm delivery: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2008;148:214–9.
  112. American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Guidelines for perinatal care, 6th ed. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2007.
  113. CDC. Rapid HIV antibody testing during labor and delivery for women of unknown HIV status: a practical guide and model protocol, 2004. Atlanta, GA: CDC; 2004.
  114. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Viral hepatitis in pregnancy. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 86. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:941–56.
  115. Public Health Agency of Canada. Canadian guidelines on sexually transmitted infections. 2006 ed. Centre for Communicable Diseases and Infection Control; 2010;Available at: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/std-mts/sti-its/.
  116. Meyers D, Wolff T, Gregory K, et al. USPSTF Recommendations for STI screening. Am Fam Physician 2008;77:819–24.
  117. Forhan SE, Gottlieb SL, Sternberg MR, et al. Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections smong female adolescents aged 14 to 19 in the United States. Pediatrics 2009;124:1505–12.
  118. CDC. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2013. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2014.
  119. English A, Benson GR, Nash E, et al. Confidentiality for individuals insured as dependents: a review of state laws and policies. New York:  Guttmacher institute and public health solutions; 2012.  Available at: http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/confidentiality-review.pdf. 2012.
  120. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for chlamydial infection: recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2007;147:128–34.
  121. CDC. Male Chlamydia Consultation, March 28-29, 2006. Atlanta, GA. Meeting report, May 22, 2007.
  122. CDC. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep 2006;55(No. RR-14).
  123. US Preventive Services Task Force. USPSTF:  Screening for HIV: final recommendation statement.  AHRQ Publication No. 12-05173-EF-3. 2013. Available at  http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf13/hiv/hivfinalrs.htm.
  124. Saslow D, Solomon D, Lawson HW, et al. American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 2012;62:147–72.
  125. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Screening for cervical cancer. ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 131. Obstet Gynecol 2012;120:1222–38.
  126. Moyer VA. Screening for cervical cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2012;156:880–91.
  127. Sasieni P, Castanon A, Cuzick J. Effectiveness of cervical screening with age: population based case-control study of prospectively recorded data. BMJ 2009;339:b2968.
  128. Mayhew A, Mullins TL, Ding L, et al. Risk perceptions and subsequent sexual behaviors after HPV vaccination in adolescents. Pediatrics 2014;133:404–11.
  129. CDC. Evaluation of large jail STD screening programs, 2008 - 2009. Atlanta, GA: CDC, NCHHSTP; 2011. Available at www.cdc.gov/std/publications/JailScreening2011.pdf. 2011.
  130. Pathela P, Hennessy RR, Blank S, et al. The contribution of a urine-based jail screening program to citywide male chlamydia and gonorrhea case rates in New York City. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36(2 Suppl):S58–61.
  131. Joesoef MR, Weinstock HS, Kent CK, et al. Corrections STD Prevalence Monitoring Group. Sex and age correlates of Chlamydia prevalence in adolescents and adults entering correctional facilities, 2005: implications for screening policy. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36(Suppl):S67–71.
  132. Kahn RH, Voigt RF, Swint E, et al. Early syphilis in the United States identified in corrections facilities, 1999-2002. Sex Transm Dis 2004;31:360–4.
  133. Kahn RH, Peterman TA, Arno J, et al. Identifying likely syphilis transmitters: implications for control and evaluation. Sex Transm Dis 2006;33:630–5.
  134. Owusu-Edusei K Jr, Gift TL, Chesson HW, et al. Investigating the potential public health benefit of jail-based screening and treatment programs for chlamydia. Am J Epidemiol 2013;177:463–73.
  135. Sutcliffe S, Newman SB, Hardick A, et al. Prevalence and correlates of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among female US federal prison inmates. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:585–90.
  136. Freeman AH, Katz KA, Pandori MW, et al. Prevalence and correlates of Trichomonas vaginalis among incarcerated persons assessed using a highly sensitive molecular assay. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:165–8.
  137. Sosman J, Macgowan R, Margolis A, et al. Project START Biologics Study Group.  Sexually transmitted infections and hepatitis in men with a history of incarceration. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:634–9.
  138. Mayer KH, Bekker LG, Stall R, et al. Comprehensive clinical care for men who have sex with men: an integrated approach. Lancet 2012;380:378–87.
  139. Chesson HW, Sternberg M, Leichliter JS, et al. Changes in the state-level distribution of primary and secondary syphilis in the USA, 1985-2007. Sex Transm Infect 2010;86(Suppl 3):iii58–62.
  140. Patton ME, Su JR, Nelson R, et al. Primary and secondary syphilis United States, 2005-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014;63:1402–6.
  141. Kerani RP, Handsfield HH, Stenger MS, et al. Rising rates of syphilis in the era of syphilis elimination. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:154–61.
  142. Zetola NM, Bernstein KT, Wong E, et al. Exploring the relationship between sexually transmitted diseases and HIV acquisition by using different study designs. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009;50:546–51.
  143. Solomon MM, Mayer KH, Glidden DV, et al. Syphilis Predicts HIV Incidence Among Men and Transgender Women Who Have Sex With Men in a Preexposure Prophylaxis Trial. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59:1020–6.
  144. az-Bailey G, Meyers A, Blank S, et al. A case-control study of syphilis among men who have sex with men in New York City: association With HIV infection. Sex Transm Dis 2004;31:581–7.
  145. Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Schillinger JA, et al. Men who have sex with men have a 140-fold higher risk for newly diagnosed HIV and syphilis compared with heterosexual men in New York City. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011;58:408–16.
  146. Chew Ng RA, Samuel MC, Lo T, et al. Sex, drugs (methamphetamines), and the Internet: increasing syphilis among men who have sex with men in California, 2004-2008. Am J Public Health 2013;103:1450–6.
  147. Bernstein KT, Stephens SC, Strona FV, et al. Epidemiologic characteristics of an ongoing syphilis epidemic among men who have sex with men, San Francisco. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:11–7.
  148. Cohen SE, Chew Ng RA, Katz KA, et al. Repeat syphilis among men who have sex with men in California, 2002-2006: implications for syphilis elimination efforts. Am J Public Health 2012;102:e1–8.
  149. Newman LM, Dowell D, Bernstein K, et al. A tale of two gonorrhea epidemics: results from the STD Surveillance Network (SSuN). 2012.
  150. Kim AA, Kent CK, Klausner JD. Risk factors for rectal gonococcal infection amidst resurgence in HIV transmission. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:813–7.
  151. Lafferty WE, Hughes JP, Handsfield HH. Sexually transmitted diseases in men who have sex with men - acquisition of gonorrhea and nongonococcal urethritis by fellatio and implications for STD/HIV prevention. Sex Transm Dis 1997;24:272–8.
  152. Bernstein KT, Stephens SC, Barry PM, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae transmission from the oropharynx to the urethra among men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis 2009;49:1793–7.
  153. Park J, Marcus JL, Pandori M, et al. Sentinel surveillance for pharyngeal chlamydia and gonorrhea among men who have sex with men--San Francisco, 2010. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:482–4.
  154. CDC. Clinic-based testing for rectal and pharyngeal Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis infections by community-based organizations--five cities, United States, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009;58:716–19.
  155. Bernstein KT, Marcus JL, Nieri G, et al. Rectal gonorrhea and chlamydia reinfection is associated with increased risk of HIV seroconversion. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010;53:537–43.
  156. Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Blank S, et al. HIV incidence among men with and those without sexually transmitted rectal infections: estimates from matching against an HIV case registry. Clin Infect Dis 2013;57:1203–9.
  157. Scott KC, Philip S, Ahrens K, et al. High prevalence of gonococcal and chlamydial infection in men who have sex with men with newly diagnosed HIV infection - an opportunity for same-day presumptive treatment. J Acq Imm Def 2008;48:109–12.
  158. Chesson HW, Bernstein KT, Gift TL, et al. The cost-effectiveness of screening men who have sex with men for rectal chlamydial and gonococcal infection to prevent HIV Infection. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:366–71.
  159. Ackers ML, Greenberg AE, Lin CY, et al. High and persistent HIV seroincidence in men who have sex with men across 47 U.S. cities. PLoS One 2012;7:e34972.
  160. CDC. HIV infection among young black men who have sex with men--Jackson, Mississippi, 2006-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009;58.
  161. Wall KM, Khosropour CM, Sullivan PS. Offering of HIV screening to men who have sex with men by their health care providers and associated factors. Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care 2010;9:284–8.
  162. Hoover KW, Butler M, Workowski K, et al. STD screening of HIV-infected MSM in HIV clinics. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:771–6.
  163. Carter JW, Jr., Hart-Cooper GD, Butler MO, et al. Provider barriers prevent recommended sexually transmitted disease screening of HIV-infected men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis 2014;41:137–42.
  164. Makadon HJ. The Fenway guide to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender health. 2009.
  165. Moskowitz DA, Melton D, Owczarzak J. PowerON: the use of instant message counseling and the Internet to facilitate HIV/STD education and prevention. Patient Educ Couns 2009;77:20–6.
  166. Mimiaga MJ, Reisner SL, Tetu AM, et al. Partner notification after STD and HIV exposures and infections: knowledge, attitudes, and experiences of Massachusetts men who have sex with men. Public Health Rep 2009;124:111–9.
  167. CDC. Recommendations on the use of quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in males:  Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2011;60:1705-8.
  168. Palefsky JM, Giuliano AR, Goldstone S, et al. HPV vaccine against anal HPV infection and anal intraepithelial neoplasia. N Engl J Med 2011;365:1576–85.
  169. CDC. Recommendations for identification and public health management of persons with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. MMWR Recomm Rep 2008;57(No. RR-8).
  170. Tohme RA, Holmberg SD. Is sexual contact a major mode of hepatitis C virus transmission? Hepatology 2010;52:1497–505.
  171. Frederick T, Burian P, Terrault N, et al. Factors associated with prevalent hepatitis C infection among HIV-infected women with no reported history of injection drug use: the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS). AIDS Patient Care STDS 2009;23:915–23.
  172. Hershow RC, Kalish LA, Sha B, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in Chicago women with or at risk for HIV infection - Evidence for sexual transmission. Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:527–32.
  173. Wandeler G, Gsponer T, Bregenzer A, et al. Hepatitis C virus infections in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study: a rapidly evolving epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:1408–16.
  174. Palacios R, Mata R, Aguilar I, et al. High seroprevalence but low incidence of HCV infection in a cohort of patients with sexually transmitted HIV in Andalusia, Spain. Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care 2009;8:100–5.
  175. Garg S, Taylor LE, Grasso C, et al. Prevalent and incident hepatitis C virus infection among HIV-infected men who have sex with men engaged in primary care in a Boston community health center. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:1480–7.
  176. Linas BP, Wong AY, Schackman BR, et al. Cost-effective screening for acute hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:279–90.
  177. Taylor LE, DeLong AK, Maynard MA, et al. Acute hepatitis C virus in an HIV clinic: a screening strategy, risk factors, and perception of risk. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2011;25:571–7.
  178. CDC. Testing for HCV infection: an update of guidance for clinicians and laboratorians. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013;62.
  179. Muzny CA, Sunesara IR, Martin DH, et al. Sexually transmitted infections and risk behaviors among African American women who have sex with women: does sex with men make a difference? Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:1118–25.
  180. Eisenberg M. Differences in sexual risk behaviors between college students with same-sex and opposite-sex experience: results from a national survey. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2001;30:575–89.
  181. Koh AS, Gomez CA, Shade S, et al. Sexual risk factors among self-identified lesbians, bisexual women, and heterosexual women accessing primary care settings. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32:563–9.
  182. Lindley L, Burcin M. STD diagnoses among sexually active female college students: does sexual orientation or gender of sex partner(s) make a difference? National STD Prevention Conference; 2008; Chicago, IL.
  183. Goodenow C, Szalacha LA, Robin LE, et al. Dimensions of sexual orientation and HIV-related risk among adolescent females: evidence from a statewide survey. Am J Public Health 2008;98:1051–8.
  184. Schick V, Rosenberger JG, Herbenick D, et al. Sexual behaviour and risk reduction strategies among a multinational sample of women who have sex with women. Sex Transm Infect 2012;88:407–12.
  185. Richters J, Prestage G, Schneider K, et al. Do women use dental dams? Safer sex practices of lesbians and other women who have sex with women. Sex Health 2010;7:165–9.
  186. Rowen TS, Breyer BN, Lin TC, et al. Use of barrier protection for sexual activity among women who have sex with women. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2013;120:42–5.
  187. Lindley LL, Friedman DB, Struble C. Becoming visible: assessing the availability of online sexual health information for lesbians. Health Promot Pract 2012;13:472–80.
  188. Fethers K, Marks C, Mindel A, et al. Sexually transmitted infections and risk behaviours in women who have sex with women. Sex Transm Infect 2000;76:345–9.
  189. Marrazzo JM, Koutsky LA, Eschenbach DA, et al. Characterization of vaginal flora and bacterial vaginosis in women who have sex with women. J Infect Dis 2002;185:1307–13.
  190. Kellock D, O'Mahony CP. Sexually acquired metronidazole-resistant trichomoniasis in a lesbian couple. Genitourin Med 1996;72:60–1.
  191. Muzny CA, Rivers CA, Mena LA, et al. Genotypic characterization of Trichomonas vaginalis isolates among women who have sex with women in sexual partnerships. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:556–8.
  192. Chan SK, Thornton LR, Chronister KJ, et al. Likely female-to-female sexual transmission of HIV - Texas, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014;63:209–12.
  193. Kwakwa HA, Ghobrial MW. Female-to-female transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:e40–1.
  194. Diamant AL, Schuster MA, McGuigan K, et al. Lesbians' sexual history with men: implications for taking a sexual history. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2730–6.
  195. Xu F, Sternberg MR, Markowitz LE. Women who have sex with women in the United States: prevalence, sexual behavior and prevalence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection-results from national health and nutrition examination survey 2001-2006. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:407–13.
  196. Marrazzo JM, Stine K, Wald A. Prevalence and risk factors for infection with herpes simplex virus type-1 and-2 among lesbians. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:890–5.
  197. Marrazzo JM, Koutsky LA, Stine KL, et al. Genital human papillomavirus infection in women who have sex with women. J Infect Dis 1998;178:1604–9.
  198. Marrazzo JM, Koutsky LA, Kiviat NB, et al. Papanicolaou test screening and prevalence of genital human papillomavirus among women who have sex with women. Am J Public Health 2001;91:947–52.
  199. Bailey JV, Kavanagh J, Owen C, et al. Lesbians and cervical screening. Br J Gen Pract 2000;50:481–2.
  200. Ferris DG, Batish S, Wright TC, et al. A neglected lesbian health concern: cervical neoplasia. J Fam Pract 1996;43:581–4.
  201. O'Hanlan KA, Crum CP. Human papillomavirus-associated cervical intraepithelial neoplasia following lesbian sex. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88(4 Pt 2):702–3.
  202. Singh D, Fine DN, Marrazzo JM. Chlamydia trachomatis infection among women reporting sexual activity with women screened in family planning clinics in the Pacific Northwest, 1997 to 2005. Am J Public Health 2011;101:1284–90.
  203. Koumans EH, Sternberg M, Bruce C, et al. The prevalence of bacterial vaginosis in the United States, 2001-2004: associations with symptoms, sexual behaviors, and reproductive health. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:864–9.
  204. Evans AL, Scally AJ, Wellard SJ, et al. Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis in lesbians and heterosexual women in a community setting. Sex Transm Infect 2007;83:470–5.
  205. Marrazzo JM, Antonio M, Agnew K, et al. Distribution of genital Lactobacillus strains shared by female sex partners. J Infect Dis 2009;199:680–3.
  206. Marrazzo JM, Fiedler TL, Srinivasan S, et al. Extravaginal reservoirs of vaginal bacteria as risk factors for incident bacterial vaginosis. J Infect Dis 2012;205:1580–8.
  207. Mitchell C, Manhart LE, Thomas K, et al. Behavioral predictors of colonization with Lactobacillus crispatus or Lactobacillus jensenii after treatment for bacterial vaginosis: a cohort study. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2012;2012:706540.
  208. Mitchell C, Manhart LE, Thomas KK, et al. Effect of sexual activity on vaginal colonization with hydrogen peroxide-producing lactobacilli and Gardnerella vaginalis. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:1137–44.
  209. Fethers K, Twin J, Fairley CK, et al. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) candidate bacteria: associations with BV and behavioural practices in sexually-experienced and inexperienced women. PLoS One 2012;7:e30633.
  210. Bradshaw CS, Vodstrcil LA, Hocking JS, et al. Recurrence of bacterial vaginosis is significantly associated with posttreatment sexual activities and hormonal contraceptive use. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:777–86.
  211. Marrazzo JM, Thomas KK, Fiedler TL, et al. Risks for acquisition of bacterial vaginosis among women who report sex with women: a cohort study. PLoS One 2010;5:e11139.
  212. Vodstrcil LA, Walker SM, Hocking JS, et al. Incident Bacterial Vaginosis (BV) in women who have sex with women is associated with behaviors that suggest sexual transmission of BV. Clin Infect Dis 2014:pii: ciu1130. [Epub ahead of print].
  213. Marrazzo JM, Thomas KK, Ringwood K. A behavioural intervention to reduce persistence of bacterial vaginosis among women who report sex with women: results of a randomised trial. Sex Transm Infect 2011;87:399–405.
  214. Herbst JH, Jacobs ED, Finlayson TJ, et al. Estimating HIV prevalence and risk behaviors of transgender persons in the United States: a systematic review. AIDS Behav 2008;12:1–17.
  215. Operario D, Soma T, Underhill K. Sex work and HIV status among transgender women: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008;48:97–103.
  216. Baral SD, Poteat T, Stromdahl S, et al. Worldwide burden of HIV in transgender women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13:214–22.
  217. Clements-Nolle K, Marx R, Guzman R, et al. HIV prevalence, risk behaviors, health care use, and mental health status of transgender persons: implications for public health intervention. Am J Public Health 2001;91:915–21.
  218. Nuttbrock L, Hwahng S, Bockting W, et al. Lifetime risk factors for HIV/sexually transmitted infections among male-to-female transgender persons. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009;52:417–21.
  219. CDC. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas—2010.  Published June 2012. Accessed April 25, 2013. 2012.
  220. Sevelius J. "There's no pamphlet for the kind of sex I have": HIV-related risk factors and protective behaviors among transgender men who have sex with nontransgender men. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care 2009;20:398–410.
  221. Reisner SL, Perkovich B, Mimiaga MJ. A mixed methods study of the sexual health needs of New England transmen who have sex with nontransgender men. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2010;24:501–13.
  222. Denniston MM, Jiles RB, Drobeniuc J, et al. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003 to 2010. Ann Intern Med 2014;160:293–300.
  223. Terrault NA, Dodge JL, Murphy EL, et al. Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus among monogamous heterosexual couples: the HCV partners study. Hepatology 2013;57:881–9.
  224. Tohme RA, Holmberg SD. Transmission of hepatitis C virus infection through tattooing and piercing: a critical review. Clin Infect Dis 2012;54:1167–78.
  225. Brettler DB, Mannucci PM, Gringeri A, et al. The low risk of hepatitis C virus transmission among sexual partners of hepatitis C-infected hemophilic males: an international, multicenter study. Blood 1992;80:540–3.
  226. Kao JH, Hwang YT, Chen PJ, et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus between spouses: The important role of exposure duration. American Journal of Gastroenterology 1996;91:2087–90.
  227. Marincovich B, Castilla J, del Romero J, et al. Absence of hepatitis C virus transmission in a prospective cohort of heterosexual serodiscordant couples. Sex Transm Infect 2003;79:160–2.
  228. Tahan V, Karaca C, Yildirim B, et al. Sexual transmission of HCV between spouses. American Journal of Gastroenterology 2005;100:821–4.
  229. Vandelli C, Renzo F, Romano L, et al. Lack of evidence of sexual transmission of hepatitis C among monogamous couples: Results of a 10-year prospective follow-up study. American Journal of Gastroenterology 2004;99:855–9.
  230. Feldman JG, Minkoff H, Landesman S, et al. Heterosexual transmission of hepatitis C, hepatitis B, and HIV-1 in a sample of inner city women. Sex Transm Dis 2000;27:338–42.
  231. Fierer DS, Uriel AJ, Carriero DC, et al. Liver fibrosis during an outbreak of acute hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected men: a prospective cohort study. J Infect Dis 2008;198:683–6.
  232. Fierer DS, Mullen MP, Dieterich DT, et al. Early-onset liver fibrosis due to primary hepatitis C virus infection is higher over time in HIV-infected men. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:887–9.
  233. Dionne-Odom J, Osborn MK, Radziewicz H, et al. Acute hepatitis C and HIV coinfection. Lancet Infect Dis 2009;9:775–83.
  234. van de Laar T, Pybus O, Bruisten S, et al. Evidence of a large, international network of HCV transmission in HIV-positive men who have sex with men. Gastroenterology 2009;136:1609–17.
  235. rbanus AT, van de Laar TJ, Stolte IG, et al. Hepatitis C virus infections among HIV-infected men who have sex with men: an expanding epidemic. AIDS 2009;23:F1–7.
  236. Hammer GP, Kellogg TA, McFarland WC, et al. Low incidence and prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection among sexually active non-intravenous drug-using adults, San Francisco, 1997-2000. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:919–24.
  237. Roy KM, Goldberg DJ, Hutchinson S, et al. Hepatitis C virus among self declared non-injecting sexual partners of injecting drug users. Journal of Medical Virology 2004;74:62–6.
  238. Mele A, Stroffolini T, Tosti ME, et al. Heterosexual transmission of hepatitis C in Italy. Journal of Medical Virology 1999;57:111–3.
  239. Rauch A, Rickenbach M, Weber R, et al. Unsafe sex and increased incidence of hepatitis C virus infection among HIV-infected men who have sex with men: the Swiss HIV cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:395–402.
  240. van de Laar TJ, van der Bij AK, Prins M, et al. Increase in HCV incidence among men who have sex with men in Amsterdam most likely caused by sexual transmission. J Infect Dis 2007;196:230–8.
  241. Browne R, Asboe D, Gilleece Y, et al. Increased numbers of acute hepatitis C infections in HIV positive homosexual men; is sexual transmission feeding the increase? Sex Transm Infect 2004;80:326–7.
  242. Danta M, Brown D, Bhagani S, et al. Recent epidemic of acute hepatitis C virus in HIV-positive men who have sex with men linked to high-risk sexual behaviours. AIDS 2007;21:983–91.
  243. Ghosn J, Pierre-Francois S, Thibault V, et al. Acute hepatitis C in HIV-infected men who have sex with men. HIV Med 2004;5:303–6.
  244. Thompson ND, Perz JF, Moorman AC, et al. Nonhospital health care-associated hepatitis B and C virus transmission: United States, 1998-2008. Ann Intern Med 2009;150:33–9.
  245. Smith BD, Morgan RL, Beckett GA, et al. Recommendations for the identification of chronic hepatitis C virus infection among persons born during 1945-1965. MMWR Recomm Rep 2012;61(No. RR-4).
  246. Cottrell EB, Chou R, Wasson N, et al. Reducing risk for mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2013;158:109–13.
  247. Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.Available at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adult_oi.pdf.
  248. Briat A, Dulioust E, Galimand J, et al. Hepatitis C virus in the semen of men coinfected with HIV-1: prevalence and origin. AIDS 2005;19:1827–35.
  249. Tully JG, Taylor-Robinson D, Cole RM, et al. A newly discovered mycoplasma in the human urogenital tract. Lancet 1981;1:1288–91.
  250. Taylor-Robinson D, Jensen JS. Mycoplasma genitalium: from chrysalis to multicolored butterfly. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011;24:498–514.
  251. Huppert JS, Mortensen JE, Reed JL, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium detected by transcription-mediated amplification is associated with Chlamydia trachomatis in adolescent women. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:250–4.
  252. Mena L, Wang X, Mroczkowski TF, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium infections in asymptomatic men and men with urethritis attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic in New Orleans. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:1167–73.
  253. Falk L. The overall agreement of proposed definitions of mucopurulent cervicitis in women at high risk of chlamydia infection. Acta Derm Venereol 2010;90:506–11.
  254. Anagrius C, Lore B, Jensen JS. Mycoplasma genitalium: prevalence, clinical significance, and transmission. Sex Transm Infect 2005;81:458–62.
  255. Falk L, Fredlund H, Jensen JS. Signs and symptoms of urethritis and cervicitis among women with or without Mycoplasma genitalium or Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Sex Transm Infect 2005;81:73–8.
  256. Manhart LE, Critchlow CW, Holmes KK, et al. Mucopurulent cervicitis and Mycoplasma genitalium. J Infect Dis 2003;187:650–7.
  257. Gaydos C, Maldeis NE, Hardick A, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium as a contributor to the multiple etiologies of cervicitis in women attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:598–606.
  258. Mobley VL, Hobbs MM, Lau K, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium infection in women attending a sexually transmitted infection clinic: diagnostic specimen type, coinfections, and predictors. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:706–9.
  259. Lusk MJ, Konecny P, Naing ZW, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium is associated with cervicitis and HIV infection in an urban Australian STI clinic population. Sex Transm Infect 2011;87:107–9.
  260. Casin I, Vexiau-Robert D, De La Salmoniere P, et al. High prevalence of Mycoplasma genitalium in the lower genitourinary tract of women attending a sexually transmitted disease clinic in Paris, France. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:353–9.
  261. Korte JE, Baseman JB, Cagle MP, et al. Cervicitis and genitourinary symptoms in women culture positive for Mycoplasma genitalium. Am J Reprod Immunol 2006;55:265–75.
  262. Bjartling C, Osser S, Persson K. The association between Mycoplasma genitalium and pelvic inflammatory disease after termination of pregnancy. Brit J Obstet Gynecol 2010;117:361–4.
  263. Cohen CR, Manhart LE, Bukusi EA, et al. Association between Mycoplasma genitalium and acute endometritis. Lancet 2002;359:765–6.
  264. Cohen CR, Mugo NR, Astete SG, et al. Detection of Mycoplasma genitalium in women with laparoscopically diagnosed acute salpingitis. Sex Transm Infect 2005;81:463–6.
  265. Haggerty CL, Totten PA, Astete SG, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium among women with nongonococcal, nonchlamydial pelvic inflammatory disease. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2006:30184.
  266. Irwin KL, Moorman AC, O'Sullivan MJ, et al. Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95:525–34.
  267. Short VL, Totten PA, Ness RB, et al. Clinical presentation of Mycoplasma genitalium infection versus Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection among women with pelvic inflammatory disease. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:41–7.
  268. Simms I, Eastick K, Mallinson H, et al. Associations between Mycoplasma genitalium, Chlamydia trachomatis, and pelvic inflammatory disease. Sex Transm Infect 2003;79:154–6.
  269. Taylor-Robinson D, Jensen JS, Svenstrup H, et al. Difficulties experienced in defining the microbial cause of pelvic inflammatory disease. International journal of STD and AIDS 2012;23:18–24.
  270. Wiesenfeld HC, Hillier SL, Meyn L, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium - is it a pathogen in acute pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)? STI & AIDS World Congress 2013 (Joint Meeting of the 20th ISSTDR and 14th IUSTI Meeting); July 14-27, 2013; Vienna, Austria.
  271. Bjartling C, Osser S, Persson K. Mycoplasma genitalium and Chlamydia trachomatis in laparoscopically diagnosed pelvic inflammatory disease. STI & AIDS World Congress 2013 (Joint Meeting of the 20th ISSTDR and 14th IUSTI Meeting); July 14-17, 2013; Vienna, Austria.
  272. Vandepitte J, Bukenya J, Hughes P, et al. Clinical characteristics associated with Mycoplasma genitalium infection among women at high risk of HIV and other STI in Uganda. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:487–91.
  273. Oakeshott P, Kerry S, Aghaizu A, et al. Randomised controlled trial of screening for Chlamydia trachomatis to prevent pelvic inflammatory disease: the POPI (prevention of pelvic infection) trial. BMJ 2010;340:c1642.
  274. Edwards RK, Ferguson RJ, Reyes L, et al. Assessing the relationship between preterm delivery and various microorganisms recovered from the lower genital tract. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2006;19:357–63.
  275. Hitti J, Garcia P, Totten P, et al. Correlates of cervical Mycoplasma genitalium and risk of preterm birth among Peruvian women. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:81–5.
  276. Mena LA, Mroczkowski TF, Nsuami M, et al. A randomized comparison of azithromycin and doxycycline for the treatment of Mycoplasma genitalium-positive urethritis in men. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1649–54.
  277. Schwebke JR, Rompalo A, Taylor S, et al. Re-evaluating the treatment of nongonococcal urethritis: emphasizing emerging pathogens--a randomized clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis 2011;52:163–70.
  278. Manhart LE, Gillespie CW, Lowens MS, et al. Standard treatment regimens for nongonococcal urethritis have similar but declining cure rates: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:934–42.
  279. Bjornelius E, Anagrius C, Bojs G, et al. Antibiotic treatment of symptomatic Mycoplasma genitalium infection in Scandinavia: a controlled clinical trial. Sex Transm Infect 2008;84:72–6.
  280. Jernberg E, Moghaddam A, Moi H. Azithromycin and moxifloxacin for microbiological cure of Mycoplasma genitalium infection: an open study. International journal of STD and AIDS 2008;19:676–9.
  281. Anagrius C, Lore B, Jensen JS. Treatment of Mycoplasma genitalium: observations from a Swedish STD clinic. PLoS One 2013;8:e61481.
  282. Totten PA, Jensen NL, Khosropour CM, et al. Azithromycin and doxycycline resistance profiles of recent clinical isolates of Mycoplasma genitalium. STI & AIDS World Congress Joint Meeting of the 20th International Society of Sexually Transmitted Disease Research; July 14-17, 2013; Vienna, Austria.
  283. Bradshaw CS, Chen MY, Fairley CK. Persistence of Mycoplasma genitalium following azithromycin therapy. PLoS One 2008;3:e3618.
  284. Terada M, Izumi K, Ohki E, et al. Antimicrobial efficacies of several antibiotics against uterine cervicitis caused by Mycoplasma genitalium. J Infect Chemother 2012;18:313–7.
  285. Manhart LE, Khosropour CM, Gillespie CW, et al. Treatment outcomes for persistent Mycoplasma genitalium-associated NGU: evidence of moxifloxacin treatment failures. STI & AIDS World Congress Joint Meeting of the 20th International Society for Sexually Transmitted Disease Research; July 14-17, 2013, 2013; Vienna, Austria.
  286. Couldwell DL, Tagg KA, Jeoffreys NJ, et al. Failure of moxifloxacin treatment in Mycoplasma genitalium infections due to macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance. International journal of STD and AIDS 2013;24:822–8.
  287. Tagg KA, Jeoffreys NJ, Couldwell DL, et al. Fluoroquinolone and macrolide resistance-associated mutations in Mycoplasma genitalium. J Clin Microbiol 2013;51:2245–9.
  288. Ross JD, Cronje HS, Paszkowski T, et al. Moxifloxacin versus ofloxacin plus metronidazole in uncomplicated pelvic inflammatory disease: results of a multicentre, double blind, randomised trial. Sex Transm Infect 2006;82:446–51.
  289. Smit C, Geskus R, Walker S, et al. Effective therapy has altered the spectrum of cause-specific mortality following HIV seroconversion. AIDS 2006;20:741–9.
  290. Wada N, Jacobson LP, Cohen M, et al. Cause-specific life expectancies after 35 years of age for human immunodeficiency syndrome-infected and human immunodeficiency syndrome-negative individuals followed simultaneously in long-term cohort studies, 1984-2008. Am J Epidemiol 2013;177:116–25.
  291. Engsig FN, Zangerle R, Katsarou O, et al. Long-term mortality in HIV-positive individuals virally suppressed for >3 years with incomplete CD4 recovery. Clin Infect Dis 2014;58:1312–21.
  292. Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One 2013;8:e81355.
  293. Hollingsworth TD, Anderson RM, Fraser C. HIV-1 transmission, by stage of infection. J Infect Dis 2008;198:687–93.
  294. Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, et al. Rates of HIV-1 transmission per coital act, by stage of HIV-1 infection, in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis 2005;191:1403–9.
  295. Miller WC, Rosenberg NE, Rutstein SE, et al. Role of acute and early HIV infection in the sexual transmission of HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2010;5:277–82.
  296. Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ, Jr., et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis 2004;189:1785–92.
  297. Weintrob AC, Giner J, Menezes P, et al. Infrequent diagnosis of primary human immunodeficiency virus infection: missed opportunities in acute care settings. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:2097–100.
  298. Schacker T, Collier AC, Hughes J, et al. Clinical and epidemiologic features of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 1996;125:257–64.
  299. CDC. HIV/AIDS Surveillance report. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2011.
  300. CDC. Vital signs: HIV testing and diagnosis among adults—United States, 2001-2009. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2010;59:1550–5.
  301. CDC. Previous HIV testing among adults and adolescents newly diagnosed with HIV infection— National HIV Surveillance System, 18 jurisdictions, United States, 2006-2009. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2012;61:441–5.
  302. CDC. Persons tested for HIV—United States, 2006. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2008;57:845–9.
  303. Masciotra S, McDougal JS, Feldman J, et al. Evaluation of an alternative HIV diagnostic algorithm using specimens from seroconversion panels and persons with established HIV infections. J Clin Virol 2011;52(Suppl 1):S17–22.
  304. CDC and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. Available at http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/23447. Published June 27, 2014.
  305. CDC. HIV-2 Infection surveillance—United States, 1987-2009. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2011;60:985–8.
  306. Pilcher CD, Eron JJ, Jr., Vemazza PL, et al. Sexual transmission during the incubation period of primary HIV infection. JAMA 2001;286:1713–4.
  307. Wingood GM, DiClemente RJ, Mikhail I, et al. A randomized controlled trial to reduce HIV transmission risk behaviors and sexually transmitted diseases among women living with HIV: The WILLOW Program. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004;37(Suppl 2):S58–67.
  308. Richardson JL, Milam J, Stoyanoff S, et al. Using patient risk indicators to plan prevention strategies in the clinical care setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004;37(Supp1):S88–94.
  309. Myers JJ, Shade SB, Rose CD, et al. Interventions delivered in clinical settings are effective in reducing risk of HIV transmission among people living with HIV: results from the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA)'s Special Projects of National Significance Initiative. AIDS Behav 2010;14:483–92.
  310. Marks G, Crepaz N, Senterfitt JW, et al. Meta-analysis of high-risk sexual behavior in persons aware and unaware they are infected with HIV in the United States: implications for HIV prevention programs. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2005;39:446–53.
  311. CDC. Recommendations for partner services programs for HIV infection, syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydial infection. MMWR Recomm Rep 2008;57(No. RR-9).
  312. CDC. Antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection-drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV in the United States: recommendations from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. MMWR Recomm Rep 2005;54(No. RR-2).
  313. DiCarlo RP, Martin DH. The clinical diagnosis of genital ulcer disease in men. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:292–8.
  314. Fleming DT, Wasserheit JN. From epidemiological synergy to public health policy and practice: the contribution of other sexually transmitted diseases to sexual transmission of HIV infection. Sex Transm Infect 1999;75:3–17.
  315. Lockett AE, Dance DA, Mabey DC, et al. Serum-free media for isolation of Haemophilus ducreyi. Lancet 1991;338:326.
  316. Lewis DA. Chancroid: clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management. Sex Transm Infect 2003;79:68–71.
  317. Briggs GC, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation, 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011.
  318. Bradley H, Markowitz LE, Gibson T, et al. Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2--United States, 1999-2010. J Infect Dis 2014;209:325–33.
  319. Ryder N, Jin F, McNulty AM, et al. Increasing role of herpes simplex virus type 1 in first-episode anogenital herpes in heterosexual women and younger men who have sex with men, 1992-2006. Sex Transm Infect 2009;85:416–9.
  320. Roberts CM, Pfister JR, Spear SJ. Increasing proportion of herpes simplex virus type 1 as a cause of genital herpes infection in college students. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:797–800.
  321. Bernstein DI, Bellamy AR, Hook EW, 3rd, et al. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, and antibody response to primary infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in young women. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:344–51.
  322. Benedetti J, Corey L, Ashley R. Recurrence rates in genital herpes after symptomatic first-episode infection. Ann Intern Med 1994;121:847–54.
  323. Engelberg R, Carrell D, Krantz E, et al. Natural history of genital herpes simplex virus type 1 infection. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:174–7.
  324. Scoular A. Using the evidence base on genital herpes: optimising the use of diagnostic tests and information provision. Sex Transm Infect 2002;78:160–5.
  325. Scoular A, Gillespie G, Carman WF. Polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of genital herpes in a genitourinary medicine clinic. Sex Transm Infect 2002;78:21–5.
  326. Wald A, Huang ML, Carrell D, et al. Polymerase chain reaction for detection of herpes simplex virus (HSV) DNA on mucosal surfaces: comparison with HSV isolation in cell culture. J Infect Dis 2003;188:1345–51.
  327. Van Der Pol B, Warren T, Taylor SN, et al. Type-specific identification of anogenital herpes simplex virus infections by use of a commercially available nucleic acid amplification test. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:3466–71.
  328. Caviness AC, Oelze LL, Saz UE, et al. Direct immunofluorescence assay compared to cell culture for the diagnosis of mucocutaneous herpes simplex virus infections in children. J Clin Virol 2010;49:58–60.
  329. Song B, Dwyer DE, Mindel A. HSV type specific serology in sexual health clinics: use, benefits, and who gets tested. Sex Transm Infect 2004;80:113–7.
  330. Whittington WL, Celum CL, Cent A, et al. Use of a glycoprotein G-based type-specific assay to detect antibodies to herpes simplex virus type 2 among persons attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. Sex Transm Dis 2001;28:99–104.
  331. Zimet GD, Rosenthal SL, Fortenberry JD, et al. Factors predicting the acceptance of herpes simplex virus type 2 antibody testing among adolescents and young adults. Sex Transm Dis 2004;31:665–9.
  332. Turner KR, Wong EH, Kent CK, et al. Serologic herpes testing in the real world: validation of new type-specific serologic herpes simplex virus tests in a public health laboratory. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:422–5.
  333. Eing BR, Lippelt L, Lorentzen EU, et al. Evaluation of confirmatory strategies for detection of type-specific antibodies against herpes simplex virus type 2. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:407–13.
  334. Golden MR, Ashley-Morrow R, Swenson P, et al. Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) Western blot confirmatory testing among men testing positive for HSV-2 using the focus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in a sexually transmitted disease clinic. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32:771–7.
  335. Morrow RA, Friedrich D, Meier A, et al. Use of "biokit HSV-2 Rapid Assay" to improve the positive predictive value of Focus HerpeSelect HSV-2 ELISA. BMC Infect Dis 2005;5:84.
  336. Ngo TD, Laeyendecker O, La H, et al. Use of commercial enzyme immunoassays to detect antibodies to the herpes simplex virus type 2 glycoprotein G in a low-risk population in Hanoi, Vietnam. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 2008;15:382–4.
  337. Morrow R, Friedrich D. Performance of a novel test for IgM and IgG antibodies in subjects with culture-documented genital herpes simplex virus-1 or -2 infection. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 2006;12:463–9.
  338. Xu F, Sternberg MR, Kottiri BJ, et al. Trends in herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 seroprevalence in the United States. JAMA 2006;296:964–73.
  339. Leone PA, Trottier S, Miller JM. Valacyclovir for episodic treatment of genital herpes: a shorter 3-day treatment course compared with 5-day treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:958–62.
  340. Wald A, Carrell D, Remington M, et al. Two-day regimen of acyclovir for treatment of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:944–8.
  341. Aoki FY, Tyring S, Diaz-Mitoma F, et al. Single-day, patient-initiated famciclovir therapy for recurrent genital herpes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:8–13.
  342. Chosidow O, Drouault Y, Leconte-Veyriac F, et al. Famciclovir vs. aciclovir in immunocompetent patients with recurrent genital herpes infections: a parallel-groups, randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Br J Dermatol 2001;144:818–24.
  343. Bodsworth NJ, Crooks RJ, Borelli S, et al. International Valaciclovir HSV Study Group. Valaciclovir versus aciclovir in patient initiated treatment of recurrent genital herpes: a randomised, double blind clinical trial. Genitourin Med 1997;73:110–6.
  344. Fife KH, Barbarash RA, Rudolph T, et al. The Valaciclovir International Herpes Simplex Virus Study Group. Valaciclovir versus acyclovir in the treatment of first-episode genital herpes infection:  results of an international, multicenter, double-blind, randomized clinical trial. Sex Transm Dis 1997;24:481–6.
  345. Diaz-Mitoma F, Sibbald RG, Shafran SD, et al. Collaborative Famciclovir Genital Herpes Research Group. Oral famciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280:887–92.
  346. Mertz GJ, Loveless MO, Levin MJ, et al. Collaborative Famciclovir Genital Herpes Research Group. Oral famciclovir for suppression of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus infection in women:  a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:343–9.
  347. Reitano M, Tyring S, Lang W, et al. International Valaciclovir HSV Study Group. Valaciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus infection: a large-scale dose range-finding study. J Infect Dis 1998;178:603–10.
  348. Romanowski B, Marina RB, Roberts JN, et al. Patients' preference of valacyclovir once-daily suppressive therapy versus twice-daily episodic therapy for recurrent genital herpes: a randomized study. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:226–31.
  349. Corey L, Wald A, Patel R, et al. Once-daily valacyclovir to reduce the risk of transmission of genital herpes. N Engl J Med 2004;350:11–20.
  350. Goldberg LH, Kaufman R, Kurtz TO, et al. Acyclovir Study Group. Long-term suppression of recurrent genital herpes with acyclovir: a 5-year benchmark. Arch Dermatol 1993;129:582–7.
  351. Fife KH, Crumpacker CS, Mertz GJ, et al. Acyclovir Study Group. Recurrence and resistance patterns of herpes simplex virus following cessation of  ≥6 years of chronic suppression with acyclovir. J Infect Dis 1994;169:1338–41.
  352. Bartlett BL, Tyring SK, Fife K, et al. Famciclovir treatment options for patients with frequent outbreaks of recurrent genital herpes: the RELIEF trial. J Clin Virol 2008;43:190–5.
  353. Wald A, Selke S, Warren T, et al. Comparative efficacy of famciclovir and valacyclovir for suppression of recurrent genital herpes and viral shedding. Sex Transm Dis 2006;33:529–33.
  354. Gilbert LK, Wyand F. Genital herpes education and counseling: testing a one-page 'FAQ' intervention. Herpes 2009;15:51–6.
  355. Rosenthal SL, Zimet GD, Leichliter JS, et al. The psychosocial impact of serological diagnosis of asymptomatic herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Sex Transm Infect 2006;82:154–8.
  356. Miyai T, Turner KR, Kent CK, et al. The psychosocial impact of testing individuals with no history of genital herpes for herpes simplex virus type 2. Sex Transm Dis 2004;31:517–21.
  357. Ross K, Johnston C, Wald A. Herpes simplex virus type 2 serological testing and psychosocial harm: a systematic review. Sex Transm Infect 2011;87:594–600.
  358. Wald A, Langenberg AGM, Krantz E, et al. The relationship between condom use and herpes simplex virus acquisition. Ann Intern Med 2005;143:707–13.
  359. Wald A, Langenberg AG, Link K, et al. Effect of condoms on reducing the transmission of herpes simplex virus type 2 from men to women. JAMA 2001;285:3100–6.
  360. Henry RE, Wegmann JA, Hartle JE, et al. Successful oral acyclovir desensitization. Ann Allergy 1993;70:386–8.
  361. Posavad CM, Wald A, Kuntz S, et al. Frequent reactivation of herpes simplex virus among HIV-1-infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2004;190:693–6.
  362. Tobian AA, Grabowski MK, Serwadda D, et al. Reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 2 after initiation of antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2013;208:839–46.
  363. Conant MA, Schacker TW, Murphy RL, et al. Valaciclovir versus aciclovir for herpes simplex virus infection in HIV-infected individuals: two randomized trials. International journal of STD and AIDS 2002;13:12–21.
  364. Romanowski B, Aoki FY, Martel AY, et al. Collaborative Famciclovir HIV Study Group. Efficacy and safety of famciclovir for treating mucocutaneous herpes simplex infection in HIV-infected individuals. AIDS 2000;14:1211–7.
  365. DeJesus E, Wald A, Warren T, et al. Valacyclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects. J Infect Dis 2003;188:1009–16.
  366. Mujugira A, Magaret AS, Celum C, et al. Daily acyclovir to decrease herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) transmission from HSV-2/HIV-1 coinfected persons: a randomized controlled trial. J Infect Dis 2013;208:1366–74.
  367. Reyes M, Shaik NS, Graber JM, et al. Acyclovir-resistant genital herpes among persons attending sexually transmitted disease and human immunodeficiency virus clinics. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:76–80.
  368. Safrin S, Crumpacker C, Chatis P, et al. The AIDS Clinical Trials Group. A controlled trial comparing foscarnet with vidarabine for acyclovir-resistant mucocutaneous herpes simplex in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;325:551–5.
  369. Levin MJ, Bacon TH, Leary JJ. Resistance of herpes simplex virus infections to nucleoside analogues in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39(Suppl 5):S248–57.
  370. Perkins N, Nisbet M, Thomas M. Topical imiquimod treatment of aciclovir-resistant herpes simplex disease: case series and literature review. Sex Transm Infect 2011;87:292–5.
  371. McElhiney LF. Topical cidofovir for treatment of resistant viral infections. Int J Pharm Compd 2006;10:324–8.
  372. Erard V, Wald A, Corey L, et al. Use of long-term suppressive acyclovir after hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation:  impact on herpes simplex virus (HSV) disease and drug-resistant HSV disease. J Infect Dis 2007;196:266–70.
  373. Brown ZA, Selke S, Zeh J, et al. The acquisition of herpes simplex virus during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1997;337:509–15.
  374. Pinninti SG, Kimberlin DW. Maternal and neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. Am J Perinatol 2013;30:113–9.
  375. Brown ZA, Wald A, Morrow RA, et al. Effect of serologic status and cesarean delivery on transmission rates of herpes simplex virus from mother to infant. JAMA 2003;289:203–9.
  376. Brown ZA, Benedetti J, Ashley R, et al. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection in relation to asymptomatic maternal infection at the time of labor. N Engl J Med 1991;324:1247–52.
  377. Stone KM, Reiff-Eldridge R, White AD, et al. Pregnancy outcomes following systemic prenatal acyclovir exposure: Conclusions from the international acyclovir pregnancy registry, 1984-1999. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2004;70:201–7.
  378. Sheffield JS, Hollie LM, Hill JB, et al. Acyclovir prophylaxis to prevent herpes simplex virus recurrence at delivery:  a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:1396–403.
  379. Watts DH, Brown ZA, Money D, et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of acyclovir in late pregnancy for the reduction of herpes simplex virus shedding and cesarean delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:836–43.
  380. Scott LL, Hollier LM, McIntire D, et al. Acyclovir suppression to prevent recurrent genital herpes at delivery. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2002;10:71–7.
  381. Pinninti SG, Angara R, Feja KN, et al. Neonatal herpes disease following maternal antenatal antiviral suppressive therapy: a multicenter case series. J Pediatr 2012;161:134–8.
  382. Kimberlin DW, Baley J, Committee on Infectious Diseases, et al. Guidance on management of asymptomatic neonates born to women with active genital herpes lesions. Pediatrics 2013;131:383–6.
  383. O'Farrell N. Donovanosis. Sex Transm Infect 2002;78:452–7.
  384. Bowden FJ, National Donovanosis Eradication Advisory Committee. Donovanosis in Australia: going, going. Sex Transm Infect 2005;81:365–6.
  385. Velho PE, Souza EM, Belda Junior W. Donovanosis. The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases 2008;12:521–5.
  386. Mabey D, Peeling RW. Lymphogranuloma venereum. Sex Transm Infect 2002;78:90–2.
  387. White JA. Manifestations and management of lymphogranuloma venereum. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2009;22:57–66.
  388. Ward H, Martin I, Macdonald N, et al. Lymphogranuloma venereum in the United Kingdom. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:26–32.
  389. Martin-Iguacel R, Llibre JM, Nielsen H, et al. Lymphogranuloma venereum proctocolitis: a silent endemic disease in men who have sex with men in industrialised countries. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2010;29:917–25.
  390. Pallawela SN, Sullivan AK, Macdonald N, et al. Clinical predictors of rectal lymphogranuloma venereum infection: results from a multicentre case-control study in the U.K. Sex Transm Infect 2014;90:269–74.
  391. de Vrieze NH, de Vries HJ. Lymphogranuloma venereum among men who have sex with men. An epidemiological and clinical review. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014;12:697–704.
  392. Koper NE, van der Sande MA, Gotz HM, et al. Lymphogranuloma venereum among men who have sex with men in the Netherlands: regional differences in testing rates lead to underestimation of the incidence, 2006-2012. Euro Surveill 2013;18:20561.
  393. Haar K, Dudareva-Vizule S, Wisplinghoff H, et al. Lymphogranuloma venereum in men screened for pharyngeal and rectal infection, Germany. Emerg Infect Dis 2013;19:488–92.
  394. Papp JR, Schachter J, Gaydos C, et al. Recommendations for the laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae--2014. MMWR Recomm Rep 2014;63(No. RR-02).
  395. CDC, Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory diagnostic testing for Treponema pallidum, Expert Consultation Meeting Summary Report, January 13-15, 2009, Atlanta, GA. Available at http://www.aphl.org/programs/infectious_disease/std/Documents/ID_2009Jan_Laboratory-Guidelines-Treponema-pallidum-Meeting-Report.pdf. 2009.
  396. Nandwani R, Evans DT. Are you sure it's syphilis? A review of false positive serology. International journal of STD and AIDS 1995;6:241–8.
  397. Romanowski B, Sutherland R, Fick GH, et al. Serologic response to treatment of infectious syphilis. Ann Intern Med 1991;114:1005–9.
  398. CDC. Syphilis testing algorithms using treponemal tests for initial screening--four laboratories, New York City, 2005-2006. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2008;57:872–5.
  399. CDC. Discordant results from reverse sequence syphilis screening--five laboratories, United States, 2006-2010. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2011;60:133–7.
  400. Park IU, Chow JM, Bolan G, et al. Screening for syphilis with the treponemal immunoassay: analysis of discordant serology results and implications for clinical management. J Infect Dis 2011;204:1297–304.
  401. Wong EH, Klausner JD, Caguin-Grygiel G, et al. Evaluation of an IgM/IgG sensitive enzyme immunoassay and the utility of index values for the screening of syphilis infection in a high-risk population. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:528–32.
  402. Lukehart SA, Hook EW, III, Baker-Zander SA, et al. Invasion of the central nervous system by Treponema pallidum: implications for diagnosis and treatment. Ann Intern Med 1988;109:855–62.
  403. Jaffe HW, Larsen SA, Peters M, et al. Tests for treponemal antibody in CSF. Arch Intern Med 1978;138:252–5.
  404. Marra CM, Maxwell CL, Smith SL, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities in patients with syphilis: association with clinical and laboratory features. J Infect Dis 2004;189:369–76.
  405. CDC. Inadvertent use of Bicillin® C-R to treat syphilis infection-Los Angeles, California, 1999-2004. MMWR  Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2005;54:217–9.
  406. Rolfs RT, Joesoef MR, Hendershot EF, et al. The Syphilis and HIV Study Group. A randomized trial of enhanced therapy for early syphilis in patients with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1997;337:307–14.
  407. Taiwan HIV and Syphilis Study Group. Comparison of effectiveness of 1 dose versus 3 doses of benzathine penicillin in treatment of early syphilis in HIV-infected patients:  multicenter, prospective observational study in Taiwan [Abstract# S-119]. Presented at:  the 20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI 2013); March 3-6, 2013; Atlanta, GA.
  408. Ghanem KG, Erbelding EJ, Wiener ZS, et al. Serological response to syphilis treatment in HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients attending sexually transmitted diseases clinics. Sex Transm Infect 2007;83:97–101.
  409. Sena AC, Wolff M, Martin DH, et al. Predictors of serological cure and Serofast State after treatment in HIV-negative persons with early syphilis. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53:1092–9.
  410. Sena AC, Wolff M, Behets F, et al. Response to therapy following retreatment of serofast early syphilis patients with benzathine penicillin. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:420–2.
  411. Ghanem KG, Erbelding EJ, Cheng WW, et al. Doxycycline compared with benzathine penicillin for the treatment of early syphilis. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:e45–e9.
  412. Wong T, Singh AE, De P. Primary syphilis: serological treatment response to doxycycline/tetracycline versus benzathine penicillin. Am J Med 2008;121:903–8.
  413. Hook EW, 3rd, Roddy RE, Handsfield HH. Ceftriaxone therapy for incubating and early syphilis. J Infect Dis 1988;158:881–4.
  414. Riedner G, Rusizoka M, Todd J, et al. Single-dose azithromycin versus penicillin G benzathine for the treatment of early syphilis. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1236–44.
  415. Hook EW, 3rd, Martin DH, Stephens J, et al. A randomized, comparative pilot study of azithromycin versus benzathine penicillin G for treatment of early syphilis. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:486–90.
  416. Hook EW, 3rd, Behets F, Van Damme K, et al. A phase III equivalence trial of azithromycin versus benzathine penicillin for treatment of early syphilis. J Infect Dis 2010;201:1729–35.
  417. Lukehart SA, Godornes C, Molini BJ, et al. Macrolide resistance in Treponema pallidum in the United States and Ireland. N Engl J Med 2004;351:154–8.
  418. Mitchell SJ, Engelman J, Kent CK, et al. Azithromycin-resistant syphilis infection: San Francisco, California, 2000-2004. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:337–45.
  419. A2058G Prevalence Workgroup. Prevalence of the 23S rRNA A2058G point mutation and molecular subtypes in Treponema pallidum in the United States, 2007 to 2009. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:794–8.
  420. Collart P, Poitevin M, Milovanovic A, et al. Kinetic study of serum penicillin concentrations after single doses of benzathine and benethamine penicillins in young and old people. Br J Vener Dis 1980;56:355–62.
  421. Hagdrup HK, Lange Wantzin G, Secher L, et al. Penicillin concentrations in serum following weekly injections of benzathine penicillin G. Chemotherapy 1986;32:99–101.
  422. Frentz G, Nielsen PB, Espersen F, et al. Penicillin concentrations in blood and spinal fluid after a single intramuscular injection of penicillin G benzathine. Eur J Clin Microbiol 1984;3:147–9.
  423. Nathan L, Bawdon RE, Sidawi JE, et al. Penicillin levels following the administration of benzathine penicillin G in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:338–42.
  424. Marra CM, Maxwell CL, Tantalo L, et al. Normalization of cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities after neurosyphilis therapy: does HIV status matter? Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:1001–6.
  425. Marra CM, Maxwell CL, Tantalo LC, et al. Normalization of serum rapid plasma reagin titer predicts normalization of cerebrospinal fluid and clinical abnormalities after treatment of neurosyphilis. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47:893–9.
  426. Hook EW, 3rd, Baker-Zander SA, Moskovitz BL, et al. Ceftriaxone therapy for asymptomatic neurosyphilis: case report and Western blot analysis of serum and cerebrospinal fluid IgG response to therapy. Sex Transm Dis 1986;133(3 Suppl):185–8.
  427. Shann S, Wilson J. Treatment of neurosyphilis with ceftriaxone. Sex Transm Infect 2003;79:415–6.
  428. Ahmed KA, Fox SJ, Frigas E, et al. Clinical outcome in the use of cephalosporins in pediatric patients with a history of penicillin allergy. International Arch Allergy Immunol 2012;158:405–10.
  429. Park MA, Koch CA, Klemawesch P, et al. Increased adverse drug reactions to cephalosporins in penicillin allergy patients with positive penicillin skin test. International Arch Allergy Immunol 2010;153:268–73.
  430. Novalbos A, Sastre J, Cuesta J, et al. Lack of allergic cross-reactivity to cephalosporins among patients allergic to penicillins. Clin Exp Allergy 2001;31:438–43.
  431. Pichichero ME, Casey JR. Safe use of selected cephalosporins in penicillin-allergic patients: a meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2007;136:340–7.
  432. Kingston AA, Vujevich J, Shapiro M, et al. Seronegative secondary syphilis in 2 patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol 2005;141:431–3.
  433. CDC. Symptomatic early neurosyphilis among HIV-positive men who have sex with men--four cities, United States, January 2002-June 2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:625–8.
  434. Ghanem KG, Moore RD, Rompalo AM, et al. Neurosyphilis in a clinical cohort of HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 2008;22:1145–51.
  435. Ghanem KG, Moore RD, Rompalo AM, et al. Antiretroviral therapy is associated with reduced serologic failure rates for syphilis among HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47:258–65.
  436. Libois A, De Wit S, Poll B, et al. HIV and syphilis: When to perform a lumbar puncture. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:141–4.
  437. Ghanem KG. Sensitivity and specificity of lumbar puncture in HIV-infected patients with syphilis and no neurologic symptoms reply. Clin Infect Dis 2009;49:162–3.
  438. Marra CM, Boutin P, McArthur JC, et al. A pilot study evaluating ceftriaxone and penicillin G as treatment agents for neurosyphilis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:540–4.
  439. Dowell ME, Ross PG, Musher DM, et al. Response of latent syphilis or neurosyphilis to ceftriaxone therapy in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Med 1992;93:481–8.
  440. Smith NH, Musher DM, Huang DB, et al. Response of HIV-infected patients with asymptomatic syphilis to intensive intramuscular therapy with ceftriaxone or procaine penicillin. Int J STD AIDS 2004;15:328–32.
  441. Hollier LM, Hill J, Sheffield JS, et al. State laws regarding prenatal syphilis screening in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;189:1178–83.
  442. Newman L, Kamb M, Hawkes S, et al. Global estimates of syphilis in pregnancy and associated adverse outcomes: analysis of multinational antenatal surveillance data. PLoS Med 2013;10:e1001396.
  443. Alexander JM, Sheffield JS, Sanchez PJ, et al. Efficacy of treatment for syphilis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1999;93:5–8.
  444. Walker GJ. Antibiotics for syphilis diagnosed during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001:CD001143.
  445. Wendel GD, Jr., Sheffield JS, Hollier LM, et al. Treatment of syphilis in pregnancy and prevention of congenital syphilis. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35(Suppl 2):S200–9.
  446. Zhu L, Qin M, Du L, et al. Maternal and congenital syphilis in Shanghai, China, 2002 to 2006. Int J Infect Dis 2010;14(Suppl 3):e45–8.
  447. Hawkes S, Matin N, Broutet N, et al. Effectiveness of interventions to improve screening for syphilis in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2011;11:684–91.
  448. Hollier LM, Harstad TW, Sanchez PJ, et al. Fetal syphilis: clinical and laboratory characteristics. Obstet Gynecol 2001;97:947–53.
  449. Klein VR, Cox SM, Mitchell MD, et al. The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction complicating syphilotherapy in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1990;75(3 Pt 1):375–80.
  450. Kruger C, Malleyeck I. Congenital syphilis: still a serious, under-diagnosed threat for children in resource-poor countries. World Journal of Pediatrics 2010;6:125–31.
  451. Macy E, Poon KYT. Self-reported antibiotic allergy incidence and prevalence: age and sex effects. Am J Med 2009;122:778(e1–7).
  452. Albin S, Agarwal S. Prevalence and characteristics of reported penicillin allergy in an urban outpatient adult population. Allergy Asthma Proc 2014;35:489–94.
  453. Gadde J, Spence M, Wheeler B, et al. Clinical experience with penicillin skin testing in a large inner-city STD clinic. JAMA 1993;270:2456–63.
  454. Lee CE, Zembower TR, Fotis MA, et al. The incidence of antimicrobial allergies in hospitalized patients: implications regarding prescribing patterns and emerging bacterial resistance. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2819–22.
  455. Hsu MH, Yen JC, Chiu WT, et al. Using health smart cards to check drug allergy history: the perspective from Taiwan's experiences. J Med Syst 2011;35:555–8.
  456. Jares EJ, Sanchez-Borges M, Cardona-Villa R, et al. Multinational experience with hypersensitivity drug reactions in Latin America. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2014;113:282–9.
  457. del Real GA, Rose ME, Ramirez-Atamoros MT, et al. Penicillin skin testing in patients with a history of beta-lactam allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2007;98:355–9.
  458. Wong BB, Keith PK, Waserman S. Clinical history as a predictor of penicillin skin test outcome. Annals Asthma Allergy Immunol 2006;97:169–74.
  459. Sogn DD, Evans R, 3rd, Shepherd GM, et al. Results of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Clinical Trial to test the predictive value of skin testing with major and minor penicillin derivatives in hospitalized adults. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1025–32.
  460. Macy E, Ngor EW. Safely diagnosing clinically significant penicillin allergy using only penicilloyl-poly-lysine, penicillin, and oral amoxicillin. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2013;1:258–63.
  461. Forrest DM, Schellenberg RR, Thien VV, et al. Introduction of a practice guideline for penicillin skin testing improves the appropriateness of antibiotic therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:1685–90.
  462. Park M, Markus P, Matesic D, et al. Safety and effectiveness of a preoperative allergy clinic in decreasing vancomycin use in patients with a history of penicillin allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2006;97:681–7.
  463. Raja AS, Lindsell CJ, Bernstein JA, et al. The use of penicillin skin testing to assess the prevalence of penicillin allergy in an emergency department setting. Annals Emerg Med 2009;54:72–7.
  464. Romano A, Gaeta F, Valluzzi RL, et al. IgE-mediated hypersensitivity to cephalosporins: cross-reactivity and tolerability of penicillins, monobactams, and carbapenems. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010;126:994–9.
  465. Blanca M, Perez E, Garcia J, et al. Anaphylaxis to amoxycillin but good tolerance for benzyl penicillin: in vivo and in vitro studies of specific IgE antibodies. Allergy 1988;43:508–10.
  466. Vega JM, Blanca M, Garcia JJ, et al. Immediate allergic reactions to amoxicillin. Allergy 1994;49:317–22.
  467. Wendel GD, Jr., Stark BJ, Jamison RB, et al. Penicillin allergy and desensitization in serious infections during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1985;312:1229–32.
  468. Borish L, Tamir R, Rosenwasser LJ. Intravenous desensitization to beta-lactam antibiotics. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1987;80(3 Pt 1):314–9.
  469. Legere HJ, 3rd, Palis RI, Rodriguez Bouza T, et al. A safe protocol for rapid desensitization in patients with cystic fibrosis and antibiotic hypersensitivity. Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 2009;8:418–24.
  470. Manhart LE, Holmes KK, Hughes JP, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium among young adults in the United States: an emerging sexually transmitted infection. Am J Public Health 2007;97:1118–25.
  471. Ross JDC, Jensen JS. Mycoplasma genitalium as a sexually transmitted infection: implications for screening, testing, and treatment. Sex Transm Infect 2006;82:269–71.
  472. Taylor-Robinson D, Gilroy CB, Thomas BJ, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium in chronic non-gonococcal urethritis. International journal of STD and AIDS 2004;15:21–5.
  473. Dupin N, Bijaoui G, Schwarzinger M, et al. Detection and quantification of Mycoplasma genitalium in male patients with urethritis. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:602–5.
  474. Krieger JN, Riley DE, Roberts MC, et al. Prokaryotic DNA sequences in patients with chronic idiopathic prostatitis. J Clin Microbiol 1996;34:3120–8.
  475. Nye MB, Schwebke JR, Body BA. Comparison of APTIMA Trichomonas vaginalis transcription-mediated amplification to wet mount microscopy, culture, and polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of trichomoniasis in men and women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009;200:e181–7.
  476. Bradshaw CS, Tabrizi SN, Read TR, et al. Etiologies of nongonococcal urethritis: bacteria, viruses, and the association with orogenital exposure. J Infect Dis 2006;193:336–45.
  477. Reitmeijer CA, Mettenbrink CJ. Recalibrating the gram stain diagnosis of male urethritis in the era of nucleic acid amplification testing. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:18–20.
  478. Taylor SN, DiCarlo RP, Martin DH. Comparison of methylene blue/gentian violet stain to Gram's stain for the rapid diagnosis of gonococcal urethritis in men. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:995–6.
  479. Geisler WM, Yu SY, Hook EW, 3rd. Chlamydial and gonococcal infection in men without polymorphonuclear leukocytes on gram stain:  implications for diagnostic approach and management. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32:630–4.
  480. Hosenfeld CB, Workowski KA, Berman S, et al. Repeat infection with chlamydia and gonorrhea among females: a systematic review of the literature. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:478–89.
  481. Fung M, Scott KC, Kent CK, et al. Chlamydial and gonococcal reinfection among men: a systematic review of data to evaluate the need for retesting. Sex Transm Infect 2007;83:304–9.
  482. Lusk MJ, Konecny P. Cervicitis: a review. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2008;21:49–55.
  483. Marrazzo JM, Martin DH. Management of women with cervicitis. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44(Suppl 3):S102–10.
  484. Taylor SN, Lensing S, Schwebke J, et al. Prevalence and treatment outcome of cervicitis of unknown etiology. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:379–85.
  485. Marrazzo JM, Wiesenfeld HC, Murray PJ, et al. Risk factors for cervicitis among women with bacterial vaginosis. J Infect Dis 2006;193:617–24.
  486. Moi H, Reinton N, Moghaddam A. Mycoplasma genitalium in women with lower genital tract inflammation. Sex Transm Infect 2009;85:10–4.
  487. Bjartling C, Osser S, Persson K. Mycoplasma genitalium in cervicitis and pelvic inflammatory disease among women at a gynecologic outpatient service. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012;206:e471–8.
  488. Geisler WM, Yu S, Venglarik M, et al. Vaginal leucocyte counts in women with bacterial vaginosis: relation to vaginal and cervical infections. Sex Transm Infect 2004;80:401–5.
  489. Steinhandler L, Peipert JF, Heber W, et al. Combination of bacterial vaginosis and leukorrhea as a predictor of cervical chlamydial or gonococcal infection. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:603–7.
  490. Manhart LE. Has the time come to systematically test for Mycoplasma genitalium? Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:607–8.
  491. Manhart LE, Broad JM, Golden MR. Mycoplasma genitalium: should we treat and how? Clin Infect Dis 2011;53(Suppl 3):S129–42.
  492. Coleman JS, Hitti J, Bukusi EA, et al. Infectious correlates of HIV-1 shedding in the female upper and lower genital tracts. AIDS 2007;21:755–9.
  493. Johnson LR, Starkey CR, Palmer J, et al. A comparison of two methods to determine the presence of high-risk HPV cervical infections. Am J Clin Pathol 2008;130:401–8.
  494. McClelland RS, Wang CC, Mandaliya K, et al. Treatment of cervicitis is associated with decreased cervical shedding of HIV-1. AIDS 2001;15:105–10.
  495. Gatski M, Martin DH, Theall K, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium infection among HIV-positive women: prevalence, risk factors and association with vaginal shedding. International journal of STD and AIDS 2011;22:155–9.
  496. Gitau RW, Graham SM, Masese LN, et al. Effect of acquisition and treatment of cervical infections on HIV-1 shedding in women on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2010;24:2733–7.
  497. Scholes D, Stergachis A, Heidrich FE, et al. Prevention of pelvic inflammatory disease by screening for cervical chlamydial infection. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1362–6.
  498. Kamwendo F, Forslin L, Bodin L, et al. Decreasing incidences of gonorrhea- and chlamydia-associated acute pelvic inflammatory disease: a 25-year study from an urban area of central Sweden. Sex Transm Dis 1996;23:384–91.
  499. Gift TL, Blake DR, Gaydos CA, et al. The cost-effectiveness of screening men for Chlamydia trachomatis: a review of the literature. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35(Supp1):S51–60.
  500. Gift TL, Gaydos CA, Kent CK, et al. The program cost and cost-effectiveness of screening men for Chlamydia to prevent pelvic inflammatory disease in women. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35(Supp1):S66–75.
  501. Masek BJ, Arora N, Quinn N, et al. Performance of three nucleic acid amplification tests for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae by use of self-collected vaginal swabs obtained via an Internet-based screening program. J Clin Microbiol 2009;47:1663–7.
  502. Knox J, Tabrizi SN, Miller P, et al. Evaluation of self-collected samples in contrast to practitioner-collected samples for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Trichomonas vaginalis by polymerase chain reaction among women living in remote areas. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:647–54.
  503. Schachter J, Chernesky MA, Willis DE, et al. Vaginal swabs are the specimens of choice when screening for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae:  results from a multicenter evaluation of the APTIMA assays for both infections. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32:725–8.
  504. Doshi JS, Power J, Allen E. Acceptability of chlamydia screening using self-taken vaginal swabs. International journal of STD and AIDS 2008;19:507–9.
  505. Schachter J, Moncada J, Liska S, et al. Nucleic acid amplification tests in the diagnosis of chlamydial and gonococcal infections of the oropharynx and rectum in men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:637–42.
  506. Mimiaga MJ, Mayer KH, Reisner SL, et al. Asymptomatic gonorrhea and chlamydial infections detected by nucleic acid amplification tests among Boston area men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:495–8.
  507. Bachmann LH, Johnson RE, Cheng H, et al. Nucleic acid amplification tests for diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis rectal infections. J Clin Microbiol 2010;48:1827–32.
  508. Bachmann LH, Johnson RE, Cheng H, et al. Nucleic acid amplification tests for diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae oropharyngeal infections. J Clin Microbiol 2009;47:902–7.
  509. Sexton ME, Baker JJ, Nakagawa K, et al. How reliable is self-testing for gonorrhea and chlamydia among men who have sex with men? J Fam Pract 2013;62:70–8.
  510. van der Helm JJ, Hoebe CJ, van Rooijen MS, et al. High performance and acceptability of self-collected rectal swabs for diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in men who have sex with men and women. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:493–7.
  511. Dodge B, Van Der Pol B, Reece M, et al. Rectal self-sampling in non-clinical venues for detection of sexually transmissible infections among behaviourally bisexual men. Sex Health 2012;9:190–1.
  512. Chernesky M, Freund GG, Hook E, 3rd, et al. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections in North American women by testing SurePath liquid-based Pap specimens in APTIMA assays. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:2434–8.
  513. Geisler WM, Wang C, Morrison SG, et al. The natural history of untreated Chlamydia trachomatis infection in the interval between screening and returning for treatment. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:119–23.
  514. Lau CY, Qureshi AK. Azithromycin versus doxycycline for genital chlamydial infections: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:497–502.
  515. Hathorn E, Opie C, Goold P. What is the appropriate treatment for the management of rectal Chlamydia trachomatis in men and women? Sex Transm Infect 2012;88:352–4.
  516. Steedman NM, McMillan A. Treatment of asymptomatic rectal Chlamydia trachomatis: is single-dose azithromycin effective? International journal of STD and AIDS 2009;20:16–8.
  517. Marcus JL, Kohn RP, Barry PM, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae transmission from the female oropharynx to the male urethra. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:372–3.
  518. Geisler WM, Koltun WD, Abdelsayed N, et al. Safety and efficacy of WC2031 versus vibramycin for the treatment of uncomplicated urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis infection: a randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, active-controlled, multicenter trial. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:82–8.
  519. Renault CA, Israelski DM, Levy V, et al. Time to clearance of Chlamydia trachomatis ribosomal RNA in women treated for chlamydial infection. Sex Health 2011;8:69–73.
  520. Dunne EF, Chapin JB, Rietmeijer CA, et al. Rate and predictors of repeat Chlamydia trachomatis infection among men. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35(11 Supp1):S40–4.
  521. Kjaer HO, Dimcevski G, Hoff G, et al. Recurrence of urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis infection evaluated by mailed samples obtained at home: 24 weeks' prospective follow up study. Sex Transm Infect 2000;76:169–72.
  522. Whittington WL, Kent C, Kissinger P, et al. Determinants of persistent and recurrent Chlamydia trachomatis infection in young women: results of a multicenter cohort study. Sex Transm Dis 2001;28:117–23.
  523. Jacobson GF, Autry AM, Kirby RS, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing amoxicillin and azithromycin for the treatment of Chlamydia trachomatis in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:1352–4.
  524. Kacmar J, Cheh E, Montagno A, et al. A randomized trial of azithromycin versus amoxicillin for the treatment of Chlamydia trachomatis in pregnancy. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2001;9:197–202.
  525. Rahangdale L, Guerry S, Bauer HM, et al. An observational cohort study of Chlamydia trachomatis treatment in pregnancy. Sex Transm Dis 2006;33:106–10.
  526. Aggarwal A, Spitzer RF, Caccia N, et al. Repeat screening for sexually transmitted infection in adolescent obstetric patients. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2010;32:956–61.
  527. Hood EE, Nerhood RC. The utility of screening for chlamydia at 34-36 weeks gestation. W V Med J 2010;106:10–1.
  528. Phillips Campbell R, Kintner J, Whittimore J, et al. Chlamydia muridarum enters a viable but non-infectious state in amoxicillin-treated BALB/c mice. Microbes and Infection 2012;14:1177–85.
  529. yrick PB. Chlamydia trachomatis persistence in vitro: an overview. J Infect Dis 2010;201(Suppl 2):S88–95.
  530. Hammerschlag MR, Gelling M, Roblin PM, et al. Treatment of neonatal chlamydial conjunctivitis with azithromycin. Ped Infect Dis J 1998;17:1049–50.
  531. Hammerschlag MR, Chandler JW, Alexander ER, et al. Longitudinal studies on chlamydial infections in the first year of life. Ped Infect Dis 1982;1:395–401.
  532. Beem MO, Saxon E, Tipple MA. Treatment of chlamydial pneumonia of infancy. Pediatrics 1979;63:198–203.
  533. Satterwhite CL, Torrone E, Meites E, et al. Sexually transmitted infections among US women and men: prevalence and incidence estimates, 2008. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:187–93.
  534. Drake C, Barenfanger J, Lawhorn J, et al. Comparison of easy-flow copan liquid Stuart's and starplex swab transport systems for recovery of fastidious aerobic bacteria. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:1301–3.
  535. Wade JJ, Graver MA. Survival of six auxotypes of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in transport media. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:1720–1.
  536. Arbique JC, Forward KR, LeBlanc J. Evaluation of four commercial transport media for the survival of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000;36:163–8.
  537. Workowski KA, Berman SM, Douglas JM, Jr. Emerging antimicrobial resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: urgent need to strengthen prevention strategies. Ann Intern Med 2008;148:606–13.
  538. Schwarcz SK, Zenilman JM, Schnell D, et al. National surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae. JAMA 1990;264:1413–7.
  539. CDC. Update to CDC's sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2006: fluoroquinolones no longer recommended for treatment of gonococcal infections. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:332–6.
  540. CDC. Update to CDC's Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2010: oral cephalosporins no longer a recommended treatment for gonococcal infections. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2012;61:590–4.
  541. Muratani T, Akasaka S, Kobayashi T, et al. Outbreak of cefozopran (penicillin, oral cephems, and aztreonam)-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Japan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:3603–6.
  542. Deguchi T, Yasuda M, Yokoi S, et al. Treatment of uncomplicated gonococcal urethritis by double-dosing of 200 mg cefixime at a 6-h interval. J Infect Chemother 2003;9:35–9.
  543. Yokoi S, Deguchi T, Ozawa T, et al. Threat to cefixime treatment for gonorrhea. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:1275–7.
  544. Lo JY, Ho KM, Leung AO, et al. Ceftibuten resistance and treatment failure of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:3564–7.
  545. Unemo M, Golparian D, Syversen G, et al. Two cases of verified clinical failures using internationally recommended first-line cefixime for gonorrhoea treatment, Norway, 2010. Euro Surveillance 2010;15:19721.
  546. Ison CA, Hussey J, Sankar KN, et al. Gonorrhoea treatment failures to cefixime and azithromycin in England, 2010. Euro Surveillance 2011;16:19833.
  547. Forsyth S, Penney P, Rooney G. Cefixime-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the UK: a time to reflect on practice and recommendations. International journal of STD and AIDS 2011;22:296–7.
  548. Unemo M, Golparian D, Stary A, et al. First Neisseria gonorrhoeae strain with resistance to cefixime causing gonorrhoea treatment failure in Austria, 2011. Euro Surveillance 2011;16:19998.
  549. Unemo M, Golparian D, Nicholas R, et al. High-level cefixime- and ceftriaxone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae in France: novel penA mosaic allele in a successful international clone causes treatment failure. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012;56:1273–80.
  550. Lewis DA, Sriruttan C, Muller EE, et al. Phenotypic and genetic characterization of the first two cases of extended-spectrum-cephalosporin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection in South Africa and association with cefixime treatment failure. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013;68:1267–70.
  551. Ota KV, Fisman DN, Tamari IE, et al. Incidence and treatment outcomes of pharyngeal Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis infections in men who have sex with men: a 13-year retrospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1237–43.
  552. Allen VG, Mitterni L, Seah C, et al. Neisseria gonorrhoeae treatment failure and susceptibility to cefixime in Toronto, Canada. JAMA 2013;309:163–70.
  553. Chen MY, Stevens K, Tideman R, et al. Failure of 500 mg of ceftriaxone to eradicate pharyngeal gonorrhoea, Australia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013;68:1445–7.
  554. Tapsall J, Read P, Carmody C, et al. Two cases of failed ceftriaxone treatment in pharyngeal gonorrhoea verified by molecular microbiological methods. J Med Microbiol 2009;58(Pt 5):683–7.
  555. Ohnishi M, Saika T, Hoshina S, et al. Ceftriaxone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Japan. Emerg Infect Dis 2011;17:148–9.
  556. Unemo M, Golparian D, Hestner A. Ceftriaxone treatment failure of pharyngeal gonorrhoea verified by international recommendations, Sweden, July 2010. Euro Surveill 2011;16.
  557. Unemo M, Golparian D, Potocnik M, et al. Treatment failure of pharyngeal gonorrhoea with internationally recommended first-line ceftriaxone verified in Slovenia, September 2011. Euro Surveillance 2012;17:20200.
  558. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Approved Standard M100-S20 performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing: twentieth informational supplement. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2010.
  559. Carnicer-Pont D, Smithson A, Fina-Homar E, et al. First cases of Neisseria gonorrhoeae resistant to ceftriaxone in Catalonia, Spain, May 2011. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2012;30:218–9.
  560. Camara J, Serra J, Ayats J, et al. Molecular characterization of two high-level ceftriaxone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates detected in Catalonia, Spain. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012;67:1858–60.
  561. Steingrimsson O, Olafsson JH, Thorarinsson H, et al. Azithromycin in the treatment of sexually transmitted disease. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990;25(Suppl A):109–14.
  562. Waugh MA. Open study of the safety and efficacy of a single oral dose of azithromycin for the treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhoea in men and women. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993;31(Suppl E):193–8.
  563. Sathia L, Ellis B, Phillip S, et al. Pharyngeal gonorrhoea - is dual therapy the way forward? International journal of STD and AIDS 2007;18:647–8.
  564. Barbee LA, Kerani RP, Dombrowski JC, et al. A retrospective comparative study of 2-drug oral and intramuscular cephalosporin treatment regimens for pharyngeal gonorrhea. Clin Infect Dis 2013;56:1539–45.
  565. Lyss SB, Kamb ML, Peterman TA, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis among patients infected with and treated for Neisseria gonorrhoeae in sexually transmitted disease clinics in the United States. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:178–85.
  566. Moran JS, Levine WC. Drugs of choice for the treatment of uncomplicated gonococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20(Suppl 1):S47–65.
  567. Newman LM, Moran JS, Workowski KA. Update on the management of gonorrhea in adults in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44(Suppl 3):S84–101.
  568. Yu RX, Yin Y, Wang GQ, et al. Worldwide susceptibility rates of Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates to cefixime and cefpodoxime: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2014;9:e87849.
  569. Kirkcaldy RD, Weinstock HS, Moore PC, et al. The efficacy and safety of gentamicin plus azithromycin and gemifloxacin plus azithromycin as treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhea. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59:1083–91.
  570. CDC. Discontinuation of Spectinomycin. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006;55:370.
  571. Soge OO, Harger D, Schafer S, et al. Emergence of increased azithromycin resistance during unsuccessful treatment of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection with azithromycin (Portland, OR, 2011). Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:877–9.
  572. Waters LJ, Boag FC, Betournay R. Efficacy of azithromycin 1 g single dose in the management of uncomplicated gonorrhoea. International journal of STD and AIDS 2005;16:84.
  573. McLean CA, Wang SA, Hoff GL, et al. The emergence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae with decreased susceptibility to azithromycin in Kansas City, Missouri, 1999 to 2000. Sex Transm Dis 2004;31:73–8.
  574. Chisholm SA, Neal TJ, Alawattegama AB, et al. Emergence of high-level azithromycin resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae in England and Wales. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009;64:353–8.
  575. Mayer KH, Klausner JD, Handsfield HH. Intersecting epidemics and educable moments - Sexually transmitted disease risk assessment and screening in men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis 2001;28:464–7.
  576. Linhart Y, Shohat T, Amitai Z, et al. Sexually transmitted infections among brothel-based sex workers in Tel-Aviv area, Israel: high prevalence of pharyngeal gonorrhoea. International journal of STD and AIDS 2008;19:656–9.
  577. Kissinger PJ, Reilly K, Taylor SN, et al. Early repeat Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections among heterosexual men. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:498–500.
  578. Lo JY, Ho KM, Lo AC. Surveillance of gonococcal antimicrobial susceptibility resulting in early detection of emerging resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012;67:1422–6.
  579. CDC. Cephalosporin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae public health response plan.  Available at:  /std/treatment/Ceph-R-ResponsePlanJuly30-2012.pdf. 2012.
  580. Haimovici R, Roussel TJ. Treatment of gonococcal conjunctivitis with single-dose intramuscular ceftriaxone. Am J Ophthalmol 1989;107:511–4.
  581. Belkacem A, Caumes E, Ouanich J, et al. Changing patterns of disseminated gonococcal infection in France: cross-sectional data 2009-2011. Sex Transm Infect 2013;89:613–5.
  582. Scott WJ, Eck CD. Povidone-iodine and ophthalmia neonatorum. Ophthalmology 2012;119:653–4.
  583. David M, Rumelt S, Weintraub Z. Efficacy comparison between povidone iodine 2.5% and tetracycline 1% in prevention of ophthalmia neonatorum. Ophthalmology 2011;118:1454–8.
  584. Binenbaum G, Bruno CJ, Forbes BJ, et al. Periocular ulcerative dermatitis associated with gentamicin ointment prophylaxis in newborns. J Pediatr 2010;156:320–1.
  585. Nathawad R, Mendez H, Ahmad A, et al. Severe ocular reactions after neonatal ocular prophylaxis with gentamicin ophthalmic ointment. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:175–6.
  586. CDC. CDC Guidance on shortage of erythromycin (0.5%) ophthalmic ointment-September 2009. Atlanta, GA 2010.
  587. MacDonald N, Mailman T, Desai S. Gonococcal infections in newborns and in adolescents. Adv Exp Med Biol 2008;609:108-30.
  588. Laga M, Meheus A, Piot P. Epidemiology and control of gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum. Bull World Health Organ 1989;67:471-7.
  589. Fethers KA, Fairley CK, Morton A, et al. Early sexual experiences and risk factors for bacterial vaginosis. J Infect Dis 2009;200:1662–70.
  590. Laxmi U, Agrawal S, Raghunandan C, et al. Association of bacterial vaginosis with adverse fetomaternal outcome in women with spontaneous preterm labor: a prospective cohort study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012;25:64–7.
  591. Nelson DB, Hanlon A, Hassan S, et al. Preterm labor and bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria among urban women. J Perinat Med 2009;37:130–4.
  592. Brotman RM, Klebanoff MA, Nansel TR, et al. Bacterial vaginosis assessed by gram stain and diminished colonization resistance to incident gonococcal, chlamydial, and trichomonal genital infection. J Infect Dis 2010;202:1907–15.
  593. Cherpes TL, Wiesenfeld HC, Melan MA, et al. The associations between pelvic inflammatory disease, Trichomonas vaginalis infection, and positive herpes simplex virus type 2 serology. Sex Transm Dis 2006;33:747–52.
  594. Cohen CR, Lingappa JR, Baeten JM, et al. Bacterial vaginosis associated with increased risk of female-to-male HIV-1 transmission: a prospective cohort analysis among African couples. PLoS Med 2012;9:e1001251.
  595. Mehta SD. Systematic review of randomized trials of treatment of male sexual partners for improved bacteria vaginosis outcomes in women. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:822–30.
  596. Amsel R, Totten PA, Spiegel CA, et al. Nonspecific vaginitis. Diagnostic criteria and microbial and epidemiologic associations. Am J Med 1983;74:14–22.
  597. Schwebke JR, Hillier SL, Sobel JD, et al. Validity of the vaginal gram stain for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88(4 Pt 1):573–6.
  598. Fredricks DN, Fiedler TL, Thomas KK, et al. Targeted PCR for detection of vaginal bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:3270–6.
  599. Cartwright CP, Lembke BD, Ramachandran K, et al. Development and validation of a semiquantitative, multitarget PCR assay for diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:2321–9.
  600. Schwebke JR, Desmond R. A randomized trial of metronidazole in asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis to prevent the acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;196:517.e1–e6.
  601. Livengood CH, 3rd, Ferris DG, Wiesenfeld HC, et al. Effectiveness of two tinidazole regimens in treatment of bacterial vaginosis: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110(2 Pt 1):302–9.
  602. Sobel J, Peipert JF, McGregor JA, et al. Efficacy of clindamycin vaginal ovule (3-day treatment) vs. clindamycin vaginal cream (7-day treatment) in bacterial vaginosis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2001;9:9–15.
  603. Antonio MA, Meyn LA, Murray PJ, et al. Vaginal colonization by probiotic Lactobacillus crispatus CTV-05 is decreased by sexual activity and endogenous Lactobacilli. J Infect Dis 2009;199:1506–13.
  604. Abad CL, Safdar N. The role of lactobacillus probiotics in the treatment or prevention of urogenital infections--a systematic review. J Chemother 2009;21:243–52.
  605. Senok AC, Verstraelen H, Temmerman M, et al. Probiotics for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009:CD006289.
  606. Mastromarino P, Macchia S, Meggiorini L, et al. Effectiveness of Lactobacillus-containing vaginal tablets in the treatment of symptomatic bacterial vaginosis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 2009;15:67–74.
  607. Hemmerling A, Harrison W, Schroeder A, et al. Phase 2a study assessing colonization efficiency, safety, and acceptability of Lactobacillus crispatus CTV-05 in women with bacterial vaginosis. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37:745–50.
  608. Ferris MJ, Masztal A, Aldridge KE, et al. Association of Atopobium vaginae, a recently described metronidazole resistant anaerobe, with bacterial vaginosis. BMC Infect Dis 2004;4:5.
  609. Bradshaw CS, Tabrizi SN, Fairley CK, et al. The association of Atopobium vaginae and Gardnerella vaginalis with bacterial vaginosis and recurrence after oral metronidazole therapy. J Infect Dis 2006;194:828–36.
  610. Marrazzo JM, Thomas KK, Fiedler TL, et al. Relationship of specific vaginal bacteria and bacterial vaginosis treatment failure in women who have sex with women. Ann Intern Med 2008;149:20–8.
  611. Meltzer MC, Desmond RA, Schwebke JR. Association of Mobiluncus curtisii with recurrence of bacterial vaginosis. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:611–3.
  612. Beigi RH, Austin MN, Meyn LA, et al. Antimicrobial resistance associated with the treatment of bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;191:1124–9.
  613. Nyirjesy P, McIntosh MJ, Steinmetz JI, et al. The effects of intravaginal clindamycin and metronidazole therapy on vaginal mobiluncus morphotypes in patients with bacterial vaginosis. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:197–202.
  614. Bunge KE, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, et al. The efficacy of retreatment with the same medication for early treatment failure of bacterial vaginosis. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:711–3.
  615. Sobel JD, Ferris D, Schwebke J, et al. Suppressive antibacterial therapy with 0.75% metronidazole vaginal gel to prevent recurrent bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;194:1283–9.
  616. Reichman O, Akins R, Sobel JD. Boric acid addition to suppressive antimicrobial therapy for recurrent bacterial vaginosis. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:732–4.
  617. McClelland RS, Richardson BA, Hassan WM, et al. Improvement of vaginal health for Kenyan women at risk for acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: results of a randomized trial. J Infect Dis 2008;197:1361–8.
  618. Hauth JC, Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, et al. Reduced incidence of preterm delivery with metronidazole and erythromycin in women with bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1732–6.
  619. Morales WJ, Schorr S, Albritton J. Effect of metronidazole in patients with preterm birth in preceding pregnancy and bacterial vaginosis: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:345–9.
  620. Yudin MH, Landers DV, Meyn L, et al. Clinical and cervical cytokine response to treatment with oral or vaginal metronidazole for bacterial vaginosis during pregnancy: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:527–34.
  621. Ugwumadu A, Reid F, Hay P, et al. Natural history of bacterial vaginosis and intermediate flora in pregnancy and effect of oral clindamycin. Obstet Gynecol 2004;104:114–9.
  622. Burtin P, Taddio A, Ariburnu O, et al. Safety of metronidazole in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;172(2 Pt 1):525–9.
  623. Piper JM, Mitchel EF, Ray WA. Prenatal use of metronidazole and birth-defects - no association. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:348–52.
  624. Lamont RF, Nhan-Chang CL, Sobel JD, et al. Treatment of abnormal vaginal flora in early pregnancy with clindamycin for the prevention of spontaneous preterm birth: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;205:177–90.
  625. Brocklehurst P, Gordon A, Heatley E, et al. Antibiotics for treating bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;1:CD000262.
  626. Odendaal HJ, Popov I, Schoeman J, et al. Preterm labour—is bacterial vaginosis involved? South African Medical Journal 2002;92:231–4.
  627. Carey JC, Klebanoff MA, Hauth JC, et al. Metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery in pregnant women with asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. N Engl J Med 2000;342:534–40.
  628. Vermeulen GM, Bruinse HW. Prophylactic administration of clindamycin 2% vaginal cream to reduce the incidence of spontaneous preterm birth in women with an increased recurrence risk: a randomised placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1999;106:652–7.
  629. McDonald HM, O'Loughlin JA, Vigneswaran R, et al. Impact of metronidazole therapy on preterm birth in women with bacterial vaginosis flora (Gardnerella vaginalis): a randomised, placebo controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:1391–7.
  630. Ugwumadu A, Manyonda I, Reid F, et al. Effect of early oral clindamycin on late miscarriage and preterm delivery in asymptomatic women with abnormal vaginal flora and bacterial vaginosis: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361:983–8.
  631. Lamont RF, Duncan SL, Mandal D, et al. Intravaginal clindamycin to reduce preterm birth in women with abnormal genital tract flora. Obstet Gynecol 2003;101:516–22.
  632. McGregor JA, French JI, Jones W, et al. Bacterial vaginosis is associated with prematurity and vaginal fluid mucinase and sialidase - results of a controlled trial of topical clindamycin cream. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170:1048–60.
  633. Joesoef MR, Hillier SL, Wiknjosastro G, et al. Intravaginal clindamycin treatment for bacterial vaginosis: effects on preterm delivery and low birth weight. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:1527–31.
  634. Koss CA, Baras DC, Lane SD, et al. Investigation of metronidazole use during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012;56:4800–5.
  635. Erickson SH, Oppenheim GL, Smith GH. Metronidazole in breast milk. Obstet Gynecol 1981;57:48–50.
  636. Passmore CM, McElnay JC, Rainey EA, et al. Metronidazole excretion in human milk and its effect on the suckling neonate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1988;26:45–51.
  637. Golightly P, Kearney L. Metronidazole— is it safe to use with breastfeeding? United Kingdom National Health Service, UKMI;2012.
  638. Jamieson DJ, Duerr A, Klein RS, et al. Longitudinal analysis of bacterial vaginosis: findings from the HIV epidemiology research study. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:656–63.
  639. Sutton M, Sternberg M, Koumans EH, et al. The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among reproductive-age women in the United States, 2001-2004. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:1319–26.
  640. Ginocchio CC, Chapin K, Smith JS, et al. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis and coinfection with Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the United States as determined by the Aptima Trichomonas vaginalis nucleic acid amplification assay. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:2601–8.
  641. Meites E, Llata E, Braxton J, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis in selected U.S. sexually transmitted disease clinics: testing, screening, and prevalence. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:865–9.
  642. Willers DM, Peipert JF, Allsworth JE, et al. Prevalence and predictors of sexually transmitted infection among newly incarcerated females. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:68–72.
  643. Nijhawan AE, DeLong AK, Celentano DD, et al. The association between Trichomonas infection and incarceration in HIV-seropositive and at-risk HIV-seronegative women. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:1094–100.
  644. Shuter J, Bell D, Graham D, et al. Rates of and risk factors for trichomoniasis among pregnant inmates in New York City. Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:303–7.
  645. Sosman JM, MacGowan RJ, Margolis AD, et al. Screening for sexually transmitted diseases and hepatitis in 18-29-year-old men recently released from prison: feasibility and acceptability. International journal of STD and AIDS 2005;16:117–22.
  646. Mayer KH, Bush T, Henry K, et al. Ongoing sexually transmitted disease acquisition and risk-taking behavior among US HIV-infected patients in primary care: implications for prevention interventions. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:1–7.
  647. Kelley CF, Rosenberg ES, O'Hara BM, et al. Prevalence of urethral Trichomonas vaginalis in black and white men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:739.
  648. Peterman TA, Tian LH, Metcalf CA, et al. Persistent, undetected Trichomonas vaginalis infections? Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:259–60.
  649. Gatski M, Kissinger P. Observation of probable persistent, undetected Trichomonas vaginalis infection among HIV-positive women. Clin Infect Dis 2010;51:114–5.
  650. Sena AC, Miller WC, Hobbs MM, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in male sexual partners: implications for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:13–22.
  651. Gray RH, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, et al. The effects of male circumcision on female partners' genital tract symptoms and vaginal infections in a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009;200:e41–7.
  652. Tsai CS, Shepherd BE, Vermund SH. Does douching increase risk for sexually transmitted infections? A prospective study in high-risk adolescents. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009;200:e31–8.
  653. McClelland RS, Sangare L, Hassan WM, et al. Infection with Trichomonas vaginalis increases the risk of HIV-1 acquisition. J Infect Dis 2007;195:698–702.
  654. Van Der Pol B, Kwok C, Pierre-Louis B, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection and human immunodeficiency virus acquisition in African women. J Infect Dis 2008;197:548–54.
  655. Hughes JP, Baeten JM, Lingappa JR, et al. Determinants of per-coital-act HIV-1 infectivity among African HIV-1-serodiscordant couples. J Infect Dis 2012;205:358–65.
  656. Kissinger P, Adamski A. Trichomoniasis and HIV interactions: a review. Sex Transm Infect 2013;89:426–33.
  657. Minkoff H, Grunebaum AN, Schwarz RH, et al. Risk factors for prematurity and premature rupture of membranes: a prospective study of the vaginal flora in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984;150:965–72.
  658. Cotch MF, Pastorek JG, 2nd, Nugent RP, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis associated with low birth weight and preterm delivery. Sex Transm Dis 1997;24:353–60.
  659. Moodley P, Wilkinson D, Connolly C, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis is associated with pelvic inflammatory disease in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:519–22.
  660. Cosentino LA, Campbell T, Jett A, et al. Use of nucleic acid amplification testing for diagnosis of anorectal sexually transmitted infections. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:2005–8.
  661. Francis SC, Kent CK, Klausner JD, et al. Prevalence of rectal Trichomonas vaginalis and Mycoplasma genitalium in male patients at the San Francisco STD clinic, 2005-2006. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:797–800.
  662. Hoots BE, Peterman TA, Torrone EA, et al. A Trich-y question: should Trichomonas vaginalis infection be reportable? Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:113–6.
  663. Hollman D, Coupey SM, Fox AS, et al. Screening for Trichomonas vaginalis in high-risk adolescent females with a new transcription-mediated nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT): associations with ethnicity, symptoms, and prior and current STIs. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2010;23:312–6.
  664. Roth AM, Williams JA, Ly R, et al. Changing sexually transmitted infection screening protocol will result in improved case finding for Trichomonas vaginalis among high-risk female populations. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:398–400.
  665. Schwebke JR, Hobbs MM, Taylor SN, et al. Molecular testing for Trichomonas vaginalis in women: results from a prospective U.S. clinical trial. J Clin Microbiol 2011;49:4106–11.
  666. Huppert JS, Mortensen JE, Reed JL, et al. Rapid antigen testing compares favorably with transcription-mediated amplification assay for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in young women. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:194–8.
  667. Dize L, Agreda P, Quinn N, et al. Comparison of self-obtained penile-meatal swabs to urine for the detection of C. trachomatis, N. gonorrhoeae and T. vaginalis. Sex Transm Infect 2013;89:305–7.
  668. Campbell L, Woods V, Lloyd T, et al. Evaluation of the OSOM Trichomonas rapid test versus wet preparation examination for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis vaginitis in specimens from women with a low prevalence of infection. J Clin Microbiol 2008;46:3467–9.
  669. Huppert JS, Hesse E, Kim G, et al. Adolescent women can perform a point-of-care test for trichomoniasis as accurately as clinicians. Sex Transm Infect 2010;86:514–9.
  670. Andrea SB, Chapin KC. Comparison of Aptima Trichomonas vaginalis transcription-mediated amplification assay and BD affirm VPIII for detection of T. vaginalis in symptomatic women: performance parameters and epidemiological implications. J Clin Microbiol 2011;49:866–9.
  671. Brown HL, Fuller DD, Jasper LT, et al. Clinical evaluation of affirm VPIII in the detection and identification of Trichomonas vaginalis, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Candida species in vaginitis/vaginosis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2004;12:17–21.
  672. Mohamed OA, Cohen CR, Kungu D, et al. Urine proves a poor specimen for culture of Trichomonas vaginalis in women. Sex Transm Infect 2001;77:78–9.
  673. Lawing LF, Hedges SR, Schwebke JR. Detection of trichomonosis in vaginal and urine specimens from women by culture and PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:3585–8.
  674. toner KA, Rabe LK, Meyn LA, et al. Survival of Trichomonas vaginalis in wet preparation and on wet mount. Sex Transm Infect 2013;89:485–8.
  675. Kingston MA, Bansal D, Carlin EM. 'Shelf life' of Trichomonas vaginalis. International journal of STD and AIDS 2003;14:28–9.
  676. Wood BA, Monro AM. Pharmacokinetics of tinidazole and metronidazole in women after single large oral doses. Br J Vener Dis 1975;51:51–3.
  677. Viitanen J, Haataja H, Mannisto PT. Concentrations of metronidazole and tinidazole in male genital tissues. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985;28:812–4.
  678. Mannisto P, Karhunen M, Mattila J, et al. Concentrations of metronidazole and tinidazole in female reproductive organs after a single intravenous infusion and after repeated oral administration. Infection 1984;12:197–201.
  679. Spence MR, Harwell TS, Davies MC, et al. The minimum single oral metronidazole dose for treating trichomoniasis: a randomized, blinded study. Obstet Gynecol 1997;89(5 Pt 1):699–703.
  680. Gabriel G, Robertson E, Thin RN. Single dose treatment of trichomoniasis. J Int Med Res 1982;10:129–30.
  681. Thin RN, Symonds MA, Booker R, et al. Double-blind comparison of a single dose and a five-day course of metronidazole in the treatment of trichomoniasis. Br J Vener Dis 1979;55:354–6.
  682. Prasertsawat PO, Jetsawangsri T. Split-dose metronidazole or single-dose tinidazole for the treatment of vaginal trichomoniasis. Sex Transm Dis 1992;19:295–7.
  683. Apte VV, Packard RS. Tinidazole in the treatment of trichomoniasis, giardiasis and amoebiasis: report of a multicentre study. Drugs 1978;15(Suppl 1):43–8.
  684. Anjaeyulu R, Gupte SA, Desai DB. Single-dose treatment of trichomonal vaginitis: a comparison of tinidazole and metronidazole. J Int Med Res 1977;5:438–41.
  685. Mati JK, Wallace RJ. The treatment of trichomonal vaginitis using a single dose of tinidazole by mouth. East Afr Med J 1974;51:883–8.
  686. Forna F, Gulmezoglu AM. Interventions for treating trichomoniasis in women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003;2:CD000218.
  687. Van Der Pol B, Williams JA, Orr DP, et al. Prevalence, incidence, natural history, and response to treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among adolescent women. J Infect Dis 2005;192:2039–44.
  688. Williams JA, Van Der Pol B, Ofner S, et al. Time from treatment to negative PCR results for C. trachomatis, N. gonorrhoeae and T. vaginalis. National STD Prevention Conference; March 10-13, 2008, 2008; Chicago, IL.
  689. Mohammed H, Leichliter JS, Schmidt N, et al. Does patient-delivered partner treatment improve disclosure for treatable sexually transmitted diseases? AIDS Patient Care STDS 2010;24:183–8.
  690. Kirkcaldy RD, Augostini P, Asbel LE, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis antimicrobial drug resistance in 6 US cities, STD Surveillance Network, 2009-2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2012;18:939–43.
  691. Schwebke JR, Barrientes FJ. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis isolates with resistance to metronidazole and tinidazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:4209–10.
  692. Crowell AL, Sanders-Lewis KA, Secor WE. In vitro metronidazole and tinidazole activities against metronidazole-resistant strains of Trichomonas vaginalis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:1407–9.
  693. Bosserman EA, Helms DJ, Mosure DJ, et al. Utility of antimicrobial susceptibility testing in Trichomonas vaginalis-infected women with clinical treatment failure. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:983–7.
  694. Nyirjesy P, Gilbert J, Mulcahy LJ. Resistant trichomoniasis: successful treatment with combination therapy. Sex Transm Dis 2011;38:962–3.
  695. Tayal SC, Ochogwu SA, Bunce H. Paromomycin treatment of recalcitrant Trichomonas vaginalis. International journal of STD and AIDS 2010;21:217–8.
  696. Sobel JD, Nyirjesy P, Brown W. Tinidazole therapy for metronidazole-resistant vaginal trichomoniasis. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:1341–6.
  697. Muzny C, Barnes A, Mena L. Symptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection in the setting of severe nitroimidazole allergy: successful treatment with boric acid. Sex Health 2012;9:389–91.
  698. Aggarwal A, Shier RM. Recalcitrant Trichomonas vaginalis infections successfully treated with vaginal acidification. Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology Canada 2008;30:55–8.
  699. Dan M, Sobel JD. Failure of nitazoxanide to cure trichomoniasis in three women. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:813–4.
  700. Sena AC, Bachmann LH, Hobbs MM. Persistent and recurrent Trichomonas vaginalis infections: epidemiology, treatment and management considerations. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014;12:673–85.
  701. Obiero J, Mwethera PG, Wiysonge CS. Topical microbicides for prevention of sexually transmitted infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;6:CD007961.
  702. Helms DJ, Mosure DJ, Secor WE, et al. Management of Trichomonas vaginalis in women with suspected metronidazole hypersensitivity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008;198:e371–7.
  703. Mann JR, McDermott S, Gill T. Sexually transmitted infection is associated with increased risk of preterm birth in South Carolina women insured by Medicaid. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2010;23:563–8.
  704. Mann JR, McDermott S, Barnes TL, et al. Trichomoniasis in pregnancy and mental retardation in children. Ann Epidemiol 2009;19:891–9.
  705. Mann JR, McDermott S. Are maternal genitourinary infection and pre-eclampsia associated with ADHD in school-aged children? J Atten Disord 2011;15:667–73.
  706. Klebanoff MA, Carey JC, Hauth JC, et al. Failure of metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. New England Journal of Medicine 2001;345:487–93.
  707. Kigozi GG, Brahmbhatt H, Wabwire-Mangen F, et al. Treatment of trichomonas in pregnancy and adverse outcomes of pregnancy: a subanalysis of a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;189:1398–400.
  708. Mann JR, McDermott S, Zhou L, et al. Treatment of trichomoniasis in pregnancy and preterm birth: an observational study. J Women's Health 2009;18:493–7.
  709. Gulmezoglu AM, Azhar M. Interventions for trichomoniasis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011:CD000220.
  710. Stringer E, Read JS, Hoffman I, et al. Treatment of trichomoniasis in pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa does not appear to be associated with low birth weight or preterm birth. South African Medical Journal 2010;100:58–64.
  711. Trintis J, Epie N, Boss R, et al. Neonatal Trichomonas vaginalis infection: a case report and review of literature. International journal of STD and AIDS 2010;21:606–7.
  712. Carter JE, Whithaus KC. Neonatal respiratory tract involvement by Trichomonas vaginalis: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Trop Med Hygiene 2008;78:17–9.
  713. Gumbo FZ, Duri K, Kandawasvika GQ, et al. Risk factors of HIV vertical transmission in a cohort of women under a PMTCT program at three peri-urban clinics in a resource-poor setting. J Perinatol 2010;30:717–23.
  714. Goldenberg RL, Mwatha A, Read JS, et al. The HPTN 024 Study: the efficacy of antibiotics to prevent chorioamnionitis and preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;194:650–61.
  715. Cu-Uvin S, Ko H, Jamieson DJ, et al. Prevalence, incidence, and persistence or recurrence of trichomoniasis among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive women and among HIV-negative women at high risk for HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:1406–11.
  716. Miller M, Liao Y, Wagner M, et al. HIV, the clustering of sexually transmitted infections, and sex risk among African American women who use drugs. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:696–702.
  717. Anderson BL, Firnhaber C, Liu T, et al. Effect of trichomoniasis therapy on genital HIV viral burden among African women. Sex Transm Dis 2012;39:638–42.
  718. Kissinger P, Amedee A, Clark RA, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis treatment reduces vaginal HIV-1 shedding. Sex Transm Dis 2009;36:11–6.
  719. Kissinger P, Mena L, Levison J, et al. A randomized treatment trial: single versus 7-day dose of metronidazole for the treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV-infected women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010;55:565–71.
  720. Balkus JE, Richardson BA, Mochache V, et al. A prospective cohort study comparing the effect of single-dose 2 g metronidazole on Trichomonas vaginalis infection in HIV-seropositive versus HIV-seronegative women. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:499–505.
  721. Kissinger P, Adamski A, Clark RA, et al. Does antiretroviral therapy interfere with the treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV+ women? Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:506–7.
  722. Bruggemann RJ, Alffenaar JW, Blijlevens NM, et al. Clinical relevance of the pharmacokinetic interactions of azole antifungal drugs with other coadministered agents. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1441–58.
  723. Shahid Z, Sobel JD. Reduced fluconazole susceptibility of Candida albicans isolates in women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis: effects of long-term fluconazole therapy. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2009;64:354–6.
  724. Marchaim D, Lemanek L, Bheemreddy S, et al. Fluconazole-resistant Candida albicans vulvovaginitis. Obstet Gynecol 2012;120:1407–14.
  725. Kennedy MA, Sobel JD. Vulvovaginal candidiasis caused by non-albicans Candida species: new insights. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2010;12:465–70.
  726. Sobel JD, Chaim W, Nagappan V, et al. Treatment of vaginitis caused by Candida glabrata: use of topical boric acid and flucytosine. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;189:1297–300.
  727. Vazquez JA, Peng G, Sobel JD, et al. Evolution of antifungal susceptibility among Candida species isolates recovered from human immunodeficiency virus-infected women receiving fluconazole prophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:1069–75.
  728. Wiesenfeld HC, Sweet RL, Ness RB, et al. Comparison of acute and subclinical pelvic inflammatory disease. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32:400–5.
  729. Ness RB, Soper DE, Holley RL, et al. Effectiveness of inpatient and outpatient treatment strategies for women with pelvic inflammatory disease: results from the Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Evaluation and Clinical Health (PEACH) randomized trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:929–37.
  730. Burnett AM, Anderson CP, Zwank MD. Laboratory-confirmed gonorrhea and/or chlamydia rates in clinically diagnosed pelvic inflammatory disease and cervicitis. Am J Emerg Med 2012;30:1114–7.
  731. Ness RB, Kip KE, Hillier SL, et al. A cluster analysis of bacterial vaginosis-associated microflora and pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Epidemiol 2005;162:585–90.
  732. Jurstrand M, Jensen JS, Magnuson A, et al. A serological study of the role of Mycoplasma genitalium in pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy. Sex Transm Infect 2007;83:319–23.
  733. Oakeshott P, Aghaizu A, Hay P, et al. Is Mycoplasma genitalium in women the "New Chlamydia?" A community-based prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2010;51:1160–6.
  734. Ness RB, Hillier SL, Kip KE, et al. Bacterial vaginosis and risk of pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 2004;104:761–9.
  735. Peipert JF, Ness RB, Blume J, et al. Clinical predictors of endometritis in women with symptoms and signs of pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:856–64.
  736. Gaitan H, Angel E, Diaz R, et al. Accuracy of five different diagnostic techniques in mild-to-moderate pelvic inflammatory disease. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2002;10:171–80.
  737. Jacobson L, Westrom L. Objectivized diagnosis of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Diagnostic and prognostic value of routine laparoscopy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1969;105:1088–98.
  738. Sellors J, Mahony J, Goldsmith C, et al. The accuracy of clinical findings and laparoscopy in pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164(1 Pt 1):113–20.
  739. Bevan CD, Johal BJ, Mumtaz G, et al. Clinical, laparoscopic and microbiological findings in acute salpingitis: report on a United Kingdom cohort. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:407–14.
  740. Wiesenfeld HC, Hillier SL, Meyn LA, et al. Subclinical pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility. Obstet Gynecol 2012;120:37–43.
  741. Sweet RL. Treatment of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2011;2011:561909.
  742. Smith KJ, Ness RB, Wiesenfeld HC, et al. Cost-effectiveness of alternative outpatient pelvic inflammatory disease treatment strategies. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:960–6.
  743. Haggerty CL, Ness RB, Amortegui A, et al. Endometritis does not predict reproductive morbidity after pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:141–8.
  744. McGregor JA, Crombleholme WR, Newton E, et al. Randomized comparison of ampicillin-sulbactam to cefoxitin and doxycycline or clindamycin and gentamicin in the treatment of pelvic inflammatory disease or endometritis. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83:998–1004.
  745. Bevan CD, Ridgway GL, Rothermel CD. Efficacy and safety of azithromycin as monotherapy or combined with metronidazole compared with two standard multidrug regimens for the treatment of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. J Int Med Res 2003;31:45–54.
  746. Savaris RF, Teixeira LM, Torres TG, et al. Comparing ceftriaxone plus azithromycin or doxycycline for pelvic inflammatory disease: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:53–60.
  747. Heystek M, Ross JD. A randomized double-blind comparison of moxifloxacin and doxycycline/metronidazole/ciprofloxacin in the treatment of acute, uncomplicated pelvic inflammatory disease. International journal of STD and AIDS 2009;20:690–5.
  748. Boothby M, Page J, Pryor R, et al. A comparison of treatment outcomes for moxifloxacin versus ofloxacin/metronidazole for first-line treatment of uncomplicated non-gonococcal pelvic inflammatory disease. International journal of STD and AIDS 2010;21:195–7.
  749. Judlin P, Liao Q, Liu Z, et al. Efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin in uncomplicated pelvic inflammatory disease: the MONALISA study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2010;117:1475–84.
  750. Bukusi EA, Cohen CR, Stevens CE, et al. Effects of human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection on microbial origins of pelvic inflammatory disease and on efficacy of ambulatory oral therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:1374–81.
  751. Mugo NR, Kiehlbauch JA, Nguti R, et al. Effect of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection on treatment outcome of acute salpingitis. Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:807–12.
  752. Grimes DA. Intrauterine device and upper-genital-tract infection. Lancet 2000;356:1013–9.
  753. Viberga I, Odlind V, Lazdane G, et al. Microbiology profile in women with pelvic inflammatory disease in relation to IUD use. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2005;13:183–90.
  754. Tepper NK, Steenland MW, Gaffield ME, et al. Retention of intrauterine devices in women who acquire pelvic inflammatory disease: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:655–60.
  755. Tracy CR, Steers WD, Costabile R. Diagnosis and management of epididymitis. Urol Clin North Am 2008;35:101–8.
  756. Tracy CR, Costabile RA. The evaluation and treatment of acute epididymitis in a large university based population: are CDC guidelines being followed? World J Urol 2009;27:259–63.
  757. Trojian TH, Lishnak TS, Heiman D. Epididymitis and orchitis: an overview. Am Fam Physician 2009;79:583–7.
  758. de Villiers EM, Fauquet C, Broker TR, et al. Classification of papillomaviruses. Virology 2004;324:17-27.
  759. Myers ER, McCrory DC, Nanda K, et al. Mathematical model for the natural history of human papillomavirus infection and cervical carcinogenesis. Am J Epidemiol 2000;151:1158–71.
  760. Cogliano V, Baan R, Straif K, et al. Carcinogenicity of human papillomaviruses. Lancet Oncology 2005;6:204.
  761. Jemal A, Simard EP, Dorell C, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2009, featuring the burden and trends in human papillomavirus(HPV)-associated cancers and HPV vaccination coverage levels. J Natl Cancer Inst 2013;105:175–201.
  762. Patel H, Wagner M, Singhal P, et al. Systematic review of the incidence and prevalence of genital warts. BMC Infect Dis 2013;13:39.
  763. Chesson HW, Ekwueme DU, Saraiya M, et al. Estimates of the annual direct medical costs of the prevention and treatment of disease associated with human papillomavirus in the United States. Vaccine 2012;30:6016–9.
  764. CDC. Human papillomavirus vaccination coverage among adolescent girls, 2007–2012, and postlicensure vaccine safety monitoring, 2006-2013—United States. MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2013;62:591–5.
  765. Markowitz LE, Hariri S, Lin C, et al. Reduction in human papillomavirus (HPV) prevalence among young women following HPV vaccine introduction in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 2003-2010. J Infect Dis 2013;208:385–93.
  766. Flagg EW, Schwartz R, Weinstock H. Prevalence of anogenital warts among participants in private health plans in the United States, 2003-2010: potential impact of human papillomavirus vaccination. Am J Public Health 2013;103:1428–35.
  767. Garland SM, Steben M, Sings HL, et al. Natural history of genital warts: analysis of the placebo arm of 2 randomized phase III trials of a quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, and 18) vaccine. J Infect Dis 2009;199:805-14.
  768. Gotovtseva EP, Kapadia AS, Smolensky MH, et al. Optimal frequency of imiquimod (aldara) 5% cream for the treatment of external genital warts in immunocompetent adults: a meta-analysis. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:346–51.
  769. Baker DA, Ferris DG, Martens MG, et al. Imiquimod 3.75% cream applied daily to treat anogenital warts: combined results from women in two randomized, placebo-controlled studies. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2011;2011:806105.
  770. Mashiah J, Brenner S. Possible mechanisms in the induction of vitiligo-like hypopigmentation by topical imiquimod. Clin Exp Dermatol 2008;33:74–6.
  771. Domingues E, Chaney KC, Scharf MJ, et al. Imiquimod reactivation of lichen planus. Cutis 2012;89:276–7, 83.
  772. Patel U, Mark NM, Machler BC, et al. Imiquimod 5% cream induced psoriasis: a case report, summary of the literature and mechanism. Br J Dermatol 2011;164:670-2.
  773. Kumar B, Narang T. Local and systemic adverse effects to topical imiquimod due to systemic immune stimulation. Sex Transm Infect 2011;87:432.
  774. Tatti S, Swinehart JM, Thielert C, et al. Sinecatechins, a defined green tea extract, in the treatment of external anogenital warts: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2008;111:1371–9.
  775. Stockfleth E, Beti H, Orasan R, et al. Topical Polyphenon E in the treatment of external genital and perianal warts: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol 2008;158:1329–38.
  776. Gross G, Meyer KG, Pres H, et al. A randomized, double-blind, four-arm parallel-group, placebo-controlled Phase II/III study to investigate the clinical efficacy of two galenic formulations of Polyphenon E in the treatment of external genital warts. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2007;21:1404–12.
  777. CDC. Control of smoke from laser/electric surgical procedures. In: DHHS, ed2013:NIOSH Publication Number 96–128, available at www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/hazardcontrol/hc11.html.
  778. Filley CM, Graff-Richard NR, Lacy JR, et al. Neurologic manifestations of podophyllin toxicity. Neurology 1982;32:308–11.
  779. Conard PF, Hanna N, Rosenblum M, et al. Delayed recognition of podophyllum toxicity in a patient receiving epidural morphine. Anesth Analg 1990;71:191–3.
  780. Karol MD, Conner CS, Watanabe AS, et al. Podophyllum: suspected teratogenicity from topical application. Clin Toxicol 1980;16:283–6.
  781. Silverberg MJ, Thorsen P, Lindeberg H, et al. Condyloma in pregnancy is strongly predictive of juvenile-onset recurrent respiratory papillomatosis. Obstet Gynecol 2003;101:645–52.
  782. Dolev JC, Maurer T, Springer G, et al. Incidence and risk factors for verrucae in women. AIDS 2008;22:1213–9.
  783. Silverberg MJ, Ahdieh L, Munoz A, et al. The impact of HIV infection and immunodeficiency on human papillomavirus type 6 or 11 infection and on genital warts. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:427–35.
  784. De Panfilis G, Melzani G, Mori G, et al. Relapses after treatment of external genital warts are more frequent in HIV-positive patients than in HIV-negative controls. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:121–5.
  785. Conley LJ, Ellerbrock TV, Bush TJ, et al. HIV-1 infection and risk of vulvovaginal and perianal condylomata acuminata and intraepithelial neoplasia: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2002;359:108–13.
  786. Schlecht HP, Fugelso DK, Murphy RK, et al. Frequency of occult high-grade squamous intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive cancer within anal condylomata in men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis 2010;51:107–10.
  787. Maniar KP, Ronnett BM, Vang R, et al. Coexisting high-grade vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) and condyloma acuminatum: independent lesions due to different HPV types occurring in immunocompromised patients. Am J Surg Pathol 2013;37:53–60.
  788. Massad LS, Xie X, Darragh T, et al. Genital warts and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: natural history and effects of treatment and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Obstet Gynecol 2011;118:831–9.
  789. Forman D, de Martel C, Lacey CJ, et al. Global burden of human papillomavirus and related diseases. Vaccine 2012;30(Suppl 5):F12–23.
  790. Darragh TM, Colgan TJ, Cox JT, et al. The lower anogenital squamous terminology standardization project for HPV-associated lesions: background and consensus recommendations from the College of American Pathologists and the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2012;136:1266–97.
  791. Solomon D, Davey D, Kurman R, et al. The 2001 Bethesda System: terminology for reporting results of cervical cytology. JAMA 2002;287:2114–9.
  792. Ghanem KG, Koumans EH, Johnson RE, et al. Effect of specimen order on Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae test performance and adequacy of Papanicolaou smear. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2006;19:23–30.
  793. Saraiya M, Lee NC, Blackman D, et al. Self-reported Papanicolaou smears and hysterectomies among women in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:269–78.
  794. Sirovich BE, Welch HG. Cervical cancer screening among women without a cervix. JAMA 2004;291:2990–3.
  795. Stokes-Lampard H, Wilson S, Waddell C, et al. Vaginal vault smears after hysterectomy for reasons other than malignancy: a systematic review of the literature. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2006;113:1354–65.
  796. Arbyn M, Herbert A, Schenck U, et al. European guidelines for quality assurance in cervical cancer screening: recommendations for collecting samples for conventional and liquid-based cytology. Cytopathology 2007;18:133–9.
  797. Daley E, Perrin K, Vamos C, et al. Confusion about Pap smears: lack of knowledge among high-risk women. J Women's Health 2013;22:67–74.
  798. Drolet M, Brisson M, Maunsell E, et al. The psychosocial impact of an abnormal cervical smear result. Psychooncology 2012;21:1071–81.
  799. Ogbechie OA, Hacker MR, Dodge LE, et al. Confusion regarding cervical cancer screening and chlamydia screening among sexually active young women. Sex Transm Infect 2012;88:35–7.
  800. Dunne EF, Friedman A, Datta SD, et al. Updates on human papillomavirus and genital warts and counseling messages from the 2010 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53(Suppl 3):S143–52.
  801. Fry AM, Ferries-Rowe EA, Learman LA, et al. Pap smear versus speculum examination: can we teach providers to educate patients? J Women's Health 2010;19:1715–9.
  802. Adab P, Marshall T, Rouse A, et al. Randomised controlled trial of the effect of evidence based information on women's willingness to participate in cervical cancer screening. J Epidemiol Community Health 2003;57:589–93.
  803. Han HR, Kim J, Lee JE, et al. Interventions that increase use of Pap tests among ethnic minority women: a meta-analysis. Psychooncology 2011;20:341–51.
  804. Dyson S, Pitts M, Lyons A, et al. Providing high quality information about human papillomavirus for women after treatment for high-grade cervical dysplasia. Sex Health 2010;7:49–54.
  805. McCaffery KJ, Irwig L, Turner R, et al. Psychosocial outcomes of three triage methods for the management of borderline abnormal cervical smears: an open randomised trial. BMJ 2010;340:b4491.
  806. Daley EM, Perrin KM, McDermott RJ, et al. The psychosocial burden of HPV: a mixed-method study of knowledge, attitudes and behaviors among HPV+ women. J Health Psychol 2010;15:279–90.
  807. Pirotta M, Ung L, Stein A, et al. The psychosocial burden of human papillomavirus related disease and screening interventions. Sex Transm Infect 2009;85:508–13.
  808. Sadler L, Saftlas A, Wang W, et al. Treatment for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and risk of preterm delivery. JAMA 2004;291:2100–6.
  809. Serati M, Uccella S, Laterza RM, et al. Natural history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2008;87:1296–300.
  810. Wright TC, Jr., Massad LS, Dunton CJ, et al. 2006 consensus guidelines for the management of women with abnormal cervical cancer screening tests. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197:346–55.
  811. Stillson T, Knight AL, Elswick RK, Jr. The effectiveness and safety of two cervical cytologic techniques during pregnancy. J Fam Pract 1997;45:159–63.
  812. Foster JC, Smith HL. Use of the cytobrush for Papanicolaou smear screens in pregnant women. J Nurse Midwifery 1996;41:211–7.
  813. Paraiso MF, Brady K, Helmchen R, et al. Evaluation of the endocervical cytobrush and cervex-brush in pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:539–43.
  814. Frisch M, Biggar RJ, Goedert JJ. Human papillomavirus-associated cancers in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:1500–10.
  815. Chaturvedi AK, Madeleine MM, Biggar RJ, et al. Risk of human papillomavirus-associated cancers among persons with AIDS. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009;101:1120–30.
  816. Widdice LE, Moscicki AB. Updated guidelines for papanicolaou tests, colposcopy, and human papillomavirus testing in adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2008;43(4 Suppl):S41–51.
  817. Machalek DA, Poynten M, Jin F, et al. Anal human papillomavirus infection and associated neoplastic lesions in men who have sex with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Oncol 2012;13:487–500.
  818. Salit IE, Lytwyn A, Raboud J, et al. The role of cytology (Pap tests) and human papillomavirus testing in anal cancer screening. AIDS 2010;24:1307–13.
  819. Lemon SM. Type A viral hepatitis. New developments in an old disease. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1059-67.
  820. CDC. Update: Prevention of hepatitis A after exposure to hepatitis A virus and in international travelers. Updated recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR  Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56.
  821. Bell BP, Shapiro CN, Alter MJ, et al. The diverse patterns of hepatitis A epidemiology in the United States-implications for vaccination strategies. J Infect Dis 1998;178:1579-84.
  822. Bower WA, Nainan OV, Han X, et al. Duration of viremia in hepatitis A virus infection. J Infect Dis 2000;182:12-7.
  823. CDC. Update to: CDC viral hepatitis surveillance, United States 2010.   Available at: www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/Statistics/2010Surveillance/PDFs/2010HepSurveillanceRpt.pdf. 2010.
  824. Sharapov UM, Bulkow LR, Negus SE, et al. Persistence of hepatitis A vaccine induced seropositivity in infants and young children by maternal antibody status: 10-year follow-up. Hepatology 2012;56:516–22.
  825. Ott JJ, Irving G, Wiersma ST. Long-term protective effects of hepatitis A vaccines. A systematic review. Vaccine 2012;31:3–11.
  826. Raczniak GA, Bulkow LR, Bruce MG, et al. Long-term immunogenicity of hepatitis A virus vaccine in Alaska 17 years after initial childhood series. J Infect Dis 2013;207:493–6.
  827. Winokur PL, Stapleton JT. Immunoglobulin prophylaxis for hepatitis A. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:580-6.
  828. Klevens RM, Kruszon-Moran D, Wasley A, et al. Seroprevalence of hepatitis A virus antibodies in the U.S.: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Public Health Rep 2011;126:522–32.
  829. Alter HJ, Purcell RH, Gerin JL, et al. Transmission of hepatitis B to chimpanzees by hepatitis B surface antigen-positive saliva and semen. Infect Immun 1977;16:928–33.
  830. Villarejos VM, Visona KA, Gutierrez A, et al. Role of saliva, urine and feces in the transmission of type B hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1974;291:1375–8.
  831. Busch K, Thimme R. Natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Med Microbiol Immunol 2014.
  832. Hyams KC. Risks of chronicity following acute hepatitis B virus infection: a review. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:992-1000.
  833. Goldstein ST, Zhou F, Hadler SC, et al. A mathematical model to estimate global hepatitis B disease burden and vaccination impact. Int J Epidemiol 2005;34:1329-39.
  834. Davis LG, Weber DJ, Lemon SM. Horizontal transmission of hepatitis B virus. Lancet 1989;1:889–93.
  835. Martinson FE, Weigle KA, Royce RA, et al. Risk factors for horizontal transmission of hepatitis B virus in a rural district in Ghana. Am J Epidemiol 1998;147:478–87.
  836. CDC. Healthcare-associated hepatitis B and C outbreaks reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2008-2013. CDC; 2010. Available at www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/Outbreaks/HealthcareHepOutbreakTable.htm. 2010.
  837. Spradling PR, Xing J, Williams R, et al. Immunity to hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection two decades after implementation of universal infant HBV vaccination: association of detectable residual antibodies and response to a single HBV challenge dose. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2013;20:559–61.
  838. Lu PJ, Byrd KK, Murphy TV, et al. Hepatitis B vaccination coverage among high-risk adults 18-49 years, U.S., 2009. Vaccine 2011;29:7049–57.
  839. MacKellar DA, Valleroy LA, Secura GM, et al. Two decades after vaccine license: Hepatitis B immunization and infection among young men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health 2001;91:965–71.
  840. CDC. Updated U.S. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR Recomm Rep 2001;50(No. RR-11).
  841. Lok AS, McMahon BJ. Chronic hepatitis B: update 2009. Hepatology 2009;50:661–2.
  842. Mendy M, Peterson I, Hossin S, et al. Observational study of vaccine efficacy 24 years after the start of hepatitis B vaccination in two Gambian villages: no need for a booster dose. PLoS One 2013;8:e58029.
  843. Poovorawan Y, Chongsrisawat V, Theamboonlers A, et al. Persistence and immune memory to hepatitis B vaccine 20 years after primary vaccination of Thai infants, born to HBsAg and HBeAg positive mothers. Human Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics 2012;8:896–904.
  844. CDC. CDC guidance for evaluating health-care personnel for hepatitis B virus protection and for administering postexposure management. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013;62(No. RR-10).
  845. Klausner JD, Kohn R, Kent C. Etiology of clinical proctitis among men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:300–2.
  846. Rompalo AM. Diagnosis and treatment of sexually acquired proctitis and proctocolitis: an update. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28(Suppl 1):S84–90.
  847. McLean CA, Stoner BP, Workowski KA. Treatment of lymphogranuloma venereum. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44(Suppl 3):S147–52.
  848. Van der Bij AK, Spaargaren J, Morre SA, et al. Diagnostic and clinical implications of anorectal lymphogranuloma venereum in men who have sex with men: a retrospective case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:186–94.
  849. Galiczynski EM, Jr., Elston DM. What's eating you? Pubic lice (Pthirus pubis). Cutis 2008;81:109–14.
  850. Meinking TL, Serrano L, Hard B, et al. Comparative in vitro pediculicidal efficacy of treatments in a resistant head lice population in the United States. Arch Dermatol 2002;138:220–4.
  851. Yoon KS, Gao JR, Lee SH, et al. Permethrin-resistant human head lice, Pediculus capitis, and their treatment. Arch Dermatol 2003;139:994–1000.
  852. Burkhart CG, Burkhart CN. Oral ivermectin for Phthirus pubis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004;51:1037–8.
  853. Scott GR, Chosidow O. European guideline for the management of pediculosis pubis, 2010. International journal of STD and AIDS 2011;22:304–5.
  854. Goldust M, Rezaee E, Raghifar R, et al. Comparing the efficacy of oral ivermectin vs malathion 0.5% lotion for the treatment of scabies. SkinMed 2014;12:284–7.
  855. Nolan K, Kamrath J, Levitt J. Lindane toxicity: a comprehensive review of the medical literature. Pediatr Dermatol 2012;29:141–6.
  856. Shimose L, Munoz-Price LS. Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of scabies. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2013;15:426–31.
  857. Monsel G, Chosidow O. Management of scabies. Skin Therapy Lett 2012;17:1–4.
  858. Currie BJ, McCarthy JS. Permethrin and ivermectin for scabies. N Engl J Med 2010;362:717–25.
  859. Barkwell R, Shields S. Deaths associated with ivermectin treatment of scabies. Lancet 1997;349:1144–5.
  860. Mounsey KE, Holt DC, McCarthy J, et al. Scabies: molecular perspectives and therapeutic implications in the face of emerging drug resistance. Future Microbiol 2008;3:57–66.
  861. Mounsey KE, Holt DC, McCarthy JS, et al. Longitudinal evidence of increasing in vitro tolerance of scabies mites to ivermectin in scabies-endemic communities. Arch Dermatol 2009;145:840–1.
  862. Mounsey KE, McCarthy JS, Walton SF. Scratching the itch: new tools to advance understanding of scabies. Trends Parasitol 2013;29:35–42.
  863. Roberts LJ, Huffam SE, Walton SF, et al. Crusted scabies: clinical and immunological findings in seventy-eight patients and a review of the literature. J Infect 2005;50:375–81.
  864. Ortega-Loayza AG, McCall CO, Nunley JR. Crusted scabies and multiple dosages of ivermectin. Journal of Drugs in Dermatology 2013;12:584–5.
  865. Bouvresse S, Chosidow O. Scabies in healthcare settings. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2010;23:111–8.
  866. Ackerman DR, Sugar NF, Fine DN, et al. Sexual assault victims: factors associated with follow-up care. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;194:1653–9.
  867. Parekh V, Brown CB. Follow up of patients who have been recently sexually assaulted. Sex Transm Infect 2003;79:349.
  868. Unger ER, Fajman NN, Maloney EM, et al. Anogenital human papillomavirus in sexually abused and nonabused children: a multicenter study. Pediatrics 2011;128:e658–65.
  869. Kreimer AR, Rodriguez AC, Hildesheim A, et al. Proof-of-principle evaluation of the efficacy of fewer than three doses of a bivalent HPV16/18 vaccine. J Natl Cancer Inst 2011;103:1444–51.
  870. Claydon E, Murphy S, Osborne EM, et al. Rape and HIV. Int J STD AIDS 1991;2:200-1.
  871. Murphy S, Kitchen V, Harris JR, et al. Rape and subsequent seroconversion to HIV. BMJ 1989;299:718.
  872. Varghese B, Maher JE, Peterman TA, et al. Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission:  quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use. Sex Transm Dis 2002;29:38–43.
  873. Cardo DM, Culver DH, Ciesielski CA, et al. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1485–90.
  874. Kuhar DT, Henderson DK, Struble KA, et al. Updated US Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to human immunodeficiency virus and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2013;34:875–92.
  875. Du Mont J, Myhr TL, Husson H, et al. HIV postexposure prophylaxis use among Ontario female adolescent sexual assault victims: a prospective analysis. Sex Transm Dis 2008;35:973–8.
  876. Neu N, Heffernan-Vacca S, Millery M, et al. Postexposure prophylaxis for HIV in children and adolescents after sexual assault: a prospective observational study in an urban medical center. Sex Transm Dis 2007;34:65–8.
  877. Loutfy MR, Macdonald S, Myhr T, et al. Prospective cohort study of HIV post-exposure prophylaxis for sexual assault survivors. Antivir Ther 2008;13:87–95.
  878. Jenny C, Crawford-Jakubiak JE, Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect, et al. The evaluation of children in the primary care setting when sexual abuse is suspected. Pediatrics 2013;132:e558–67.
  879. Girardet RG, Lahoti S, Howard LA, et al. Epidemiology of sexually transmitted infections in suspected child victims of sexual assault. Pediatrics 2009;124:79–86.
  880. Black CM, Driebe EM, Howard LA, et al. Multicenter study of nucleic acid amplification tests for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in children being evaluated for sexual abuse. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:608–13.
  881. Schwandt A, Williams C, Beigi RH. Perinatal transmission of Trichomonas vaginalis: a case report. J Reprod Med 2008;53:59–61.
  882. Bell TA, Stamm WE, Wang SP, et al. Chronic Chlamydia trachomatis infections in infants. JAMA 1992;267:400–2.
  883. Schachter J, Grossman M, Sweet RL, et al. Prospective study of perinatal transmission of Chlamydia trachomatis. JAMA 1986;255:3374–7.
  884. Jones V, Smith SJ, Omar HA. Nonsexual transmission of anogenital warts in children: a retrospective analysis. The Scientific World Journal 2007;7:1896–9.
  885. Smith EM, Swarnavel S, Ritchie JM, et al. Prevalence of human papillomavirus in the oral cavity/oropharynx in a large population of children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007;26:836–40.
  886. Gavril AR, Kellogg ND, Nair P. Value of follow-up examinations of children and adolescents evaluated for sexual abuse and assault. Pediatrics 2012;129:282–9.
  887. Bandea CI, Joseph K, Secor EW, et al. Development of PCR assays for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in urine specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2013;51:1298–300.
  888. Gallion HR, Dupree LJ, Scott TA, et al. Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis in female children and adolescents evaluated for possible sexual abuse: a comparison of the InPouch TV culture method and wet mount microscopy. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2009;22:300–5.
  889. Lalor K, McElvaney R. Child sexual abuse, links to later sexual exploitation/high-risk sexual behavior, and prevention/treatment programs. Trauma Violence and Abuse 2010;11:159–77.
  890. Girardet RG, Lemme S, Biason TA, et al. HIV post-exposure prophylaxis in children and adolescents presenting for reported sexual assault. Child Abuse Negl 2009;33:173–8.
  891. Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf. 2012.
  892. Havens PL, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Postexposure prophylaxis in children and adolescents for nonoccupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatrics 2003;111(6 Pt 1):1475–89.

Next

STDs Home Page

Follow STD

Top