Referencias

Los materiales que se usaron para elaborar los recursos para Essentials for Parenting Toddlers and Preschoolers (Aspectos esenciales para la crianza de niños pequeños y prescolares) se basan en bibliografía sobre la capacitación de padres en técnicas de manejo de comportamientos. Capacitación para padres en técnicas de manejo de comportamientos se refiere a programas que enseñan a los padres técnicas para el manejo de comportamientos y destrezas para tener interacciones positivas. El objetivo de estos programas es enseñar a los padres destrezas de crianza positiva que reducen la frustración tanto de los padres como de los niños y mejoran la relación padre-hijo. La capacitación en técnicas de manejo de comportamientos es un enfoque ampliamente estudiado y es eficaz para reducir los comportamientos antisociales, agresivos y de oposición. Asimismo es eficaz para reducir los factores de riesgo de abuso y maltrato infantil. Las investigaciones han mostrado de manera constante que muchos de los beneficios de estos programas se mantienen a lo largo del tiempo. Ejemplos de investigaciones sobre estos programas incluyen los siguientes:

• Chaffin, M., Funderburk, B., Bard, D., Valle, L. A., & Gurwitch, R. (2011). A combined motivation and Parent-Child Interaction Therapy package reduces child welfare recidivism in a randomized dismantling field trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(1), 84-95.
• Chaffin, M., Silovsky, J. F., Funderburk, B., Valle, L., Brestan, E. V., Balachova, T., & ... Bonner, B. L. (2004). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 500-510.
• Dumas, J. E. (1989). Treating antisocial behavior in children: Child family approaches. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 197-222.
• Forehand, R., & Long, N. (1988). Outpatient treatment of the acting out child: Procedures, long-term follow-up data, and clinical problems. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 10, 129-177.
• Gershater-Molko, R. M., Lutzker, J. R., & Wesch, D. (2002). Using recidivism data to evaluate project SafeCare: Teaching bonding, safety, and health care skills to parents. Child Maltreatment, 7(3), 277-285.
• Kazdin, A. E. (1985). Treatment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
• Letarte, M. J., Normandeau, S., & Allard, J. (2010). Effectiveness of a parent training program “Incredible Years” in a child protection service. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(4), 253-261.
• Long, P., Forhand, R., Wierson, M., & Morgan, A. (1994). Does parent training with young noncompliant children have long-term effects? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 101-107.
• Miller, G. E., & Prinz, R. J. (1990). Enhancement of social learning family interventions for child conduct disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 291-307.
• Moreland, J. R., Schwebel, A.I., Beck, S., & Wells, R. (1982). Parents as therapists: A review of the behavior therapy parent training literature - 1975 to 1981. Behavior Modification, 6, 250-276.
• Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P system population trial. Prevention Science, 10(1), 1-12.

A continuación se detallan varios de los programas de capacitación en técnicas de manejo de comportamientos para padres en los que se basan estos recursos. Si los padres tienen hijos con problemas graves de comportamiento, las estrategias provistas aquí probablemente deban ser complementadas con los servicios intensivos de un proveedor que esté capacitado en trabajar con padres e hijos.

Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT)

http://www.pcit.org

La terapia de interacción padre-hijo (PCIT, por sus siglas en inglés) mejora la calidad de la relación entre padre e hijo y cambia la forma en que interactúan. Los padres aprenden determinadas destrezas que sirven para crear una relación afectiva y segura con sus hijos y a la vez mejoran los comportamientos deseables en sus hijos y reducen los negativos. Los capacitadores trabajan directamente con parejas de padres e hijos a fin de ayudarlos a aprender destrezas nuevas. Además de tener un impacto en el maltrato infantil, este programa ha mostrado mejoras en los comportamientos de crianza de los padres y en los problemas de comportamiento de los niños.

Manuales sobre tratamientos

• Hembree-Kigin, T., & McNeil, C. (1995). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy. New York: Plenum.
• McNeil, C. B., & Hembree-Kigin, T. L. (2010). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy, 2^nd ed. New York: Springer.
• Eyberg, S., & Funderburk, B. (2011). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy protocol, 2011. Gainesville, FL: PCIT International.

Investigación sobre los resultados del tratamiento

• Boggs, S. R., Eyberg, S. M., Edwards, D., Rayfield, A., Jacobs, J., Bagner, D., & Hood, K. (2004). Outcomes of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: A comparison of dropouts and treatment completers one to three years after treatment. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 26(4), 1-22.
• Brestan, E. V., & Eyberg, S. M. (1998). Effective psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders: 29 years, 82 studies, and 5272 kids. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 179-188.
• Chaffin, M., Funderburk, B., Bard, D., Valle, L. A., & Gurwitch, R. (2011). A combined motivation and Parent-Child Interaction Therapy package reduces child welfare recidivism in a randomized dismantling field trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(1), 84-95.
• Chaffin, M., Silovsky, J. F., Funderburk, B., Valle, L., Brestan, E. V., Balachova, T., & ... Bonner, B. L. (2004). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 500-510.
• Eisenstadt, T. H., Eyberg, S., McNeil, C. B., Newcomb, K., & Funderburk, B. (1993). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with behavior problem children: Relative effectiveness of two stages and overall treatment outcome. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 42-51.
• Eyberg, S. M., Funderburk, B. W., Hembree-Kigin, T. L., McNeil, C. B., Querido, J. G., & Hood, K. (2001). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with behavior problem children: One and two year maintenance of treatment effects in the family. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 23, 1-20.
• Funderburk, B. W., Eyberg, S. M., Newcomb, K., McNeil, C., Hembree-Kigin, T., & Capage, L. (1998). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with behavior problem children: Maintenance of treatment effects in the school setting. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 20, 17-38.
• Hood, K., & Eyberg, S.M. (2003). Outcomes of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: Mothers’ reports on maintenance three to six years after treatment. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 419-429.
• McNeil, C., Eyberg, S., Eisenstadt, T., Newcomb, K., & Funderburk, B. (1991). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with behavior problem children: Generalization of treatment effects to the school setting.Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 140-151.
• McNeil, C. B., Capage, L. C., Bahl, A., & Blanc, H. (1999). Importance of early intervention for disruptive behavior problems: Comparison of treatment and waitlist-control groups. Early Education & Development, 10, 445-454.
• Nixon, R. D. V. (2001). Changes in hyperactivity and temperament in behaviourally disturbed preschoolers after Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). Behaviour Change, 18, 168-176.
• Nixon, R. D. V., Sweeny, L., Erickson, D. B., & Touyz, S. W. (2004). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: One- and two-year follow-up of standard and abbreviated treatments for oppositional preschoolers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 263-271.
• Thomas, R., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). Behavioral outcomes of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy and Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(3), 479-495.

Triple P (Positive Parenting Program)

http://www.triplep-america.com

Triple P (abreviación de Programa de Crianza Positiva, en inglés) es un sistema de apoyo para la crianza y las familias, que aborda distintas necesidades de los padres. Hay cinco niveles de intervención que abarcan desde estrategias para aumentar la concientización y aceptación a través de los medios de comunicación hasta consultas breves sobre los problemas comunes del desarrollo, y enfoques intensivos para abordar los problemas de crianza y de comportamiento infantil. Además de tener un impacto en el maltrato infantil, este programa ha mostrado mejoras en los comportamientos de crianza de los padres y en los problemas de comportamiento de los niños.

Investigación sobre los resultados del tratamiento

• Bodenmann, G., Cina, A., Ledermann, T., & Sanders, M. R. (2008). The efficacy of Positive Parenting Program (Triple P) in improving parenting and child behavior: A comparison with two other treatment conditions. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 46, 411-427.
• Bor, W., Sanders, M. R., & Markie-Dadds, C. (2002). The effects of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program on preschool children with co-occurring disruptive behavior and attentional/hyperactive difficulties. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 571-587.
• deGraaf, I., Speetjens, P., Smit, F., de Wolff, M., & Tavecchio, L. (2008a). Effectiveness of the Triple P Positive Parenting Program on behavioral problems in children: A meta-analysis. Behavior Modification, 32, 714-735.
• de Graaf, I., Speetjens, P., Smit, F., de Wolff, M., & Tavecchio, L. (2008b). Effectiveness of the Triple P Positive Parenting Program on parenting: A meta-analysis. Family Relations, 57, 553-566.
• Leung, C., Sanders, MR., Leung, S., Mak, R., & Lau, J. (2003). An outcome evaluation of the implementation of the Triple P - Positive Parenting Program in Hong Kong. Family Process, 42(4), 531-544.
• Nowak, C., & Heinrichs, N. (2008). A comprehensive meta-analysis of Triple P-Positive Parenting Program using hierarchical linear modeling: Effectiveness and moderating variables. Clinical Child & Family Psychology, 11, 114-144.
• Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P system population trial. Prevention Science, 10(1), 1-12.
• Roberts, C., Mazzucchelli, T., Studman, L., & Sanders, M. R. (2006). Behavioral family intervention for children with developmental and behavioral problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 180-193.
• Sanders, M. R. (2008). Triple P-Positive Parenting Program as a public health approach to strengthening parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(4), 506-517.
• Sanders, M. R., Ralph, A., Sofronoff, K., Gardiner, P., Thompson, R., Dwyer, S., & Bidwell, K. (2008). Every Family: A population approach to reducing behavioral and emotional problems in children making the transition to school. Journal of Primary Prevention, 29, 197-222.
• Sanders, M. R., Markie-Dadds, C., Tully, L., & Bor, W. (2000). The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A comparison of enhanced, standard, and self-directed behavioral family intervention for parents of children with early onset conduct problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 624-640.
• Thomas, R., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). Behavioral outcomes of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy and Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(3), 479-495.

Incredible Years

http://www.incredibleyears.com

Los programas Incredible Years (Años Increíbles) para padres, maestros y niños promueven la competencia emocional y social con el objetivo de prevenir, reducir y tratar la agresión y los problemas emocionales en los niños de 0 a 12 años de edad. El componente de capacitación para padres enfatiza las destrezas y los enfoques de crianza que se sabe que promueven la competencia social, reducen los problemas de comportamiento y mejoran las destrezas académicas de los niños.

Investigación sobre los resultados del tratamiento

• McGilloway, S., Ni Mhaille, G., Bywater, T., Furlong, M., Leckey, Y., Kelly, P., Comiskey, C., & Donnelly, M. (2012). A parenting intervention for childhood behavioral problems: A randomized controlled trial in disadvantaged community-based settings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(1), 116-127.
• Metinga, A. T. A., Orobio de Castro, B., & Matthys, W. (2013). Effectiveness of the Incredible Years parent training to modify disruptive and prosocial child behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 901-913.
• Perrin, E. C., Sheldrick, R. C., McMenamy, J. M., Henson, B. S., & Carter, A. S. (2014). Improving parenting skills for families of young children in pediatric settings: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics, 168, 16-24.
• Reid, M. J., Webster-Stratton, C., & Hammond, M. (2003). Follow-up of children who received the Incredible Years intervention for oppositional-defiant disorder: Maintenance and prediction of 2-year outcome. Behavior Therapy, 34, 471-491. 
• Webster-Stratton, C. (1984). A randomized trial of two parent-training programs for families with conduct-disordered children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52(4), 666-678. 
• Webster-Stratton, C. (1990). Long-term follow-up of families with young conduct problem children: From preschool to grade school. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19(2), 144-149.
• Webster-Stratton, C. (1992). Individually administered videotape parent training: Who benefits? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16(1), 31-35. 
• Webster-Stratton, C. (1994). Advancing videotape parent training: A comparison study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 583-593.
• Webster-Stratton, C., & Bywater, T. (2014). Parents and teachers working together. Better: Evidence-based Education, 6(2), 16-17. 
• Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, J. M., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2011). Combining parent and child training for young children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(2), 191-203. 
• Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, J. M., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2013). One-year follow-up of combined parent and child intervention for young children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42, 251-261.
• Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, M. J., & Hammond, M. (2004). Treating children with early-onset conduct problems: Intervention outcomes for parent, child, and teacher training. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 105-124.
• Webster-Stratton, C., Rinaldi, J., & Reid, J. M. (2011). Long-term outcomes of Incredible Years parenting program: Predictors of adolescent adjustment. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 16, 38-46.